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THIRTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
United States Geological Survey
TO THE
SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR
1891-’92 «
BY
J. W.
DIRECTOR
IN THREE PARTS
PART III— IRRIGATION
WASHINGTON
GrOVEKNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1893
CONTENTS OF PART III.
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION, 15Y F. II. NEWELL.
Page.
Introcluctiou . 7
Preceding reports . 7
Area irrigated . 8
Area irrigable . * . . 9
Size of streaiiis . 10
Relative rnn-oif. . 13
Fluctuations of rivers and lakes . 1.5
Nonperiodic oscillations . 18
Variations and precipitation . 25
Subsurface waters . 28
Cost and value of water supply . 30
Principal drainage basins . 31
Missouri river basin . 34
Location and area . 34
Elevation and topography . 35
Laud classification . 35
Extent of irrigation . 36
Water measurements . 38
Precipitation . 39
Gallatin river . 41
Madison river . * 46
Jefferson river . 49
Missouri valley . . . 53
Prickley Pear valley . 54
Dearborn and Sun rivers . . . 55
Chestnut valley and Smith river . 57
Teton and Marias rivers . 59
Judith and Musselshell rivers . 60
Milk river . - . 62
Yellowstone river basin . 1 . 63
Location . 63
Area and topography . 64
.\rea irrigated . 65
Water measurements . 65
Precipitation . 67
Yellowstone river, above Bighorn . 68
Bighorn river . 69
Tongue river . 70
Powder river . 71
Lower Yellowstone river. . . . 72
III
IV
CONTENTS.
ysLgi
Platte river basin . 73
Location and area . 73
Elevation and topography . 74
Land classification . 75
Extent of irrigation . 75
Water measurements . 76
Precipitation . 76
Upper North Platte . 78
Laramie river . 79
Lower North Platte . 81
South Platte, above Denver . 82
Cache la PoiTdre and other creeks . 86
South Platte, below Greeley . 90
Tables of mean monthly and annual discharge . 92
AMERICAN IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, BY HERBERT M. WILSON.
Preface . 109
Introduction . 113
Chapter I.
Economical and financial aspects of irrigatian . 121
Alkali and drainage . 127
Silt and sedimentation . 130
Chapter II.
History and legislation . 133
Legislation and administration . 139
Chapter III.
Hydrography, evaporation, and seepage . 152
Duty of water . 155-
Alignment, cross-section, and slope . 158
Chapter IV.
Classes of works . 162
Perennial canals . 163
Kings river canals . 164
Calloway canal . 168
Del Norte canal . • . 171
Arizona canal . 175
Highline canal . 179
Wyoming Development Company’s canal . 181
Kraft Irrigation district canal . 184
Pecos valley canals . 187
Central Irrigation district canal . 191
Bear river canal . 194
Idaho Mining and Irrigation Company’s canal . 198
Turlock canal . 203
Folsom canals . 210
Other important canals . 214
CONTENTS.
V
Chapter V.
Pago
Headworks . 218
Weirs . 219
Crib . 221
Open . 227
Composite . 230
Masonry . 230
Diversion dams. . 234
Regulators . 238
Escapes . 244
Falls and rapids . 249
Drainage works, flumes, siplions, etc . 256
Chapter VI.
Distribution and measurement of water . 268
Application of water . 274
Maintenance and supervision . 281
Chapter VII.
Water storage . 284
San Diego Flume Company . 286
Merced reservoir . 290
Long valley reservoir . 294
Walnut Grove reservoir . 297
C astlew ood reser v oir . 302
Bear valley reservoir . 305
Sweetwater reservoir . 310
Other reservoir projects . 314
Construction of dams . 321
Chapter VII I.
Subsurface sources of supply . 326
Pumping . 332
Sub irr igati on . 338
Tools and machinery . 342
Authors’ list . 346
ENGINEERING RESULTS OF IRRIGATION SURVEY, BY HERBERT M. WHLSON.
Introduction . 357
Arkansas basin, Colorado . 362
Engineering work . 364
Twin lakes reservoir . • 365
Twin lakes dam . 367
Sun river system, Montana . 371
Reservoirs . 374
Canal lines . 383
Areas of land reclaimable . 385
Revenue . 386
Truckee and Carson river systems, Nevada . 387
Truckee river basin . 389
Dormer lake reservoir . 389
Independence lake reservoir . 391
Webber lake reservoir . 392
Lower Truckee canals . 393
VI
CONTENTS.
Page.
Truckee and Carson river systems, Nevada — Continued.
Carson Elver basin . 394
Long valley reservoir . 394
Hope valley reservoir . 395
California division . 398
High sierra reservoirs . 398
Results of surveys . 400
Bear valley reservoir . 401
Kenuedys meadow reservoir . 401
Kennedys lake reservoir . 402
Lake Eleanor reservoir . 402
Tuolumne meadow reservoir . 403
Lake Tenaiya reservoir . 404
Little Yosemite reservoir . 404
Clear lake survey . 405
El Paso reservoir . 410
Surveys . 412
Flood water storage . 414
Upper site for dam . 415
Design for dam . 415
Estimated cost . 417
Removal of the Southern Pacific R. R . 419
Removal of the Santa Fe R. R . 420
Pocatello canal, Idaho . 422
Structures . 426
UEPOnX UPON THE CONSTKUCTION OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS AND THE SELECTION AND SURVEY OP RESERVOIR SITES IN THE HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN OF THE ARKANSAS RIVER, COLORADO, BY A. H. THOMPSON.
Topographic maps . 431
Topography . 433
Reservoir sites . 435
REPORT UPON THE LOCATION AND SURVEY OF RESERVOIR SITES DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1892, BY A. H. THOMPSON.
Introduction . 451
Utah-Idaho . 452
Reservoir site No. 1, Bear lake . 452
Utah . 458
Reservoir site No. 2, Silver lake. Salt Lake county . 458
Reservoir site No. 3, Twin lakes. Salt Lake count5'^ . 460
Reservoir site No. 4, Marys lake. Salt Lake county . 460
Reservoir site No. 5, on Sevier river, Millard county . . 461
Reservoir site No. 6, on Sanpitch river, Sanpete county . 463
Reservoir site No. 7, on Sevier river, Piute county . 465
Reservoir site No. 8, on East fork of Sevier river, Piute county . 466
Reservoir site No. 9, on Otter creek, Piute county . 468
Reservoir site No. 10, on East fork of Sevier river, Garfield county . 470
Reservoir site No. 11, on East fork of Sevier river, Garfield county . 473
Reservoir site No. 12, Panquitch lake. Iron county . 475
Reservoir site No. 18, at Blue spring. Iron county . 477
IL LUSTRATIONS.
•¥
Page.
Plate CVIII. Map of the drainage basin of the Missouri river in Montana _ 44
CIX. Map of the drainage basin erf the Yellowstone river . . 64
CX. Map of the drainage basin of the Platte river . 74
CXI. Pueblo canal. Verde valley, Arizona . 132
CXII. Del Norte canal. View of rapid . 172
CXIII. Arizona canal system and plan of headworks . 174
CXIV. Arizona canal. View of Big fall . 176
CXV. Pecos canal . 190
CXVI. Bear river canal in canyon . 196
CXVII. View of Idaho canal during construction . 198
CXVIII. Phyllis canal pipeline . 200
CXIX. Phyllis canal rapid . 202
CXX. Turlock canal. View of main line . 208
CXXI. View of pile weir across Platte river . 220
CXXII. Arizona canal. View of second weir . 222
CXXIII. Bear river canal. View of weir during construction . 226
eXXIV. Calloway canal. View of weir and canal regulation head . 228
eXXV. San Diego flume. View of weir . 230
eXXVI. Folsom canal. -Plan, cross section, and. elevation of Aveir and
headworks . 232
eXXVIl. Pecos canal. View of dam . 234
CXXVIII. Del Norte canal. View of regulator from inside . 336
CXXIX. Arizona canal. View of regulator gates . 238
eXXX. Bear river canal. Elevation and cross sections of weir and
regulator . 240
CXXXI. Central Irrigation District canal. Plan and elevation of regu¬ lator . 242
CXXXII. Folsom canal. View of weir and regulator . 244
CXXXIII. Folsom canal. Plan, cross section and elevation of regulator. . . 246
CXXXIV. Arizona canal. View of falls . 2.50
CXXXV. Highline canal. View of bench flume . 258
CXXXVI. San Diego flume. View on bench . 260
eXXX VII. San Diego flume. Trestle across Los Coches creek . 262
CXXXVIII. Pecos canal. View of flume . 264
CXXXIX. Orchard irrigation by sidewise soakage from ditches . 278
CXL. San Diego flume. View of tunnel and approach . 286
CXLI. View of Castlewood dam . 302
CXLII. Sweetwater dam. Plan, cross section, and details of wasteway . 310
CXLIII. View of Sweetwater dam . 312
CXLIV. San Mateo dam. Plan, cross section, and outlet sluices . 320
CXLV. View of San Mateo dam . 322
CXLVI. San Francisco Bridge Company’s excavator . 344
VII
VIII
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
Plate CXLVII. Topographic map, Arkansas basin . In pocket.
CXLVIII. Cottonwood reservoir site . 363
CXLIX. Clear creek reservoir site . 364
CL. Monument reservoir site . 365
CLI. Leadville reservoir site . 366
CLII. Sugarloaf reservoir site . 367
CLIII. Tennessee park reservoir site . 368
CLIV. Hayden reservoir site . 369
CLV. Pring reservoir site . 370
CLVI. Twin lakes reservoir site . 371
CL VII. Sun river system . 372
CLVIII. Method of survey . In pocket.
CLIX. Sun river reservoir site^No. 1 . 374
CLX. Sun river reservoir site No. 2 . 375
CLXI. Sun river reservoir site No. 3 . . . . 376
CLXII. Sun river reservoir site No. 4 . 377
CLXIII. Sun river reservoir site No. 5 . 378
CLXIV. Sun river reservoir site No. 6 . 379
CLXV. Sun river reservoir site No. 7 . 380
CLXVI. Sun river reservoir site No. 8 . 381
CLXVII. Sun river reservoir site No. 9 . 382
CLXVIII. Benton lake reservoir site . 383
CLXIX. Willow creek and Augusta canal . 384
CLXX. Donner lake reservoir site . 390
CLXXI. Independence lake reservoir site . 391
CLXXII. Webber lake reservoir site . 392
CLXXIII. Long valley reservoir site . 394
CLXXIV. Hope valley reservoir site . 396
CLXXV. Kennedys meadow and Kennedys lake reservoir sites . 400
CLXXVI. Lake Eleanor reservoir site . 402
CLXXVII. Tuolumne meadow reservoir site . 403
CLXXVIH. Lake Ten aiya and Bear valley reservoir sites . 404
CLXXIX. Little Yosemite reservoir site . 405
CLXXX. Clear lake . ‘ . ‘ . 406
CLXXXI. El Paso reservoir site . 410
CLXXXII. Pocatello canal head; site of headworks . 422
CLXXXIII. Reservoir site No. 1, Bear lake, Utah-Idaho . 452
CLXXXIV. Reservoir site No. 6, on Sanpitch River, Sanpete County,
Utah . 462
Fig. 42. Diagram of maximum, minimum, and mean discharges of western
rivers.. . 11
43. Diagram of discharges of large rivers of the United States . 12
44. Diagram showing relative size of drainage basins and depth of run-olf . 13
45. Diagram of periodic osciflations of water level . 17
46. Diagram of nonperiodic oscillations of various rivers and lakes . 21
47. Diagram of nonperiodic oscillations of Colorado, King, and San
Joaquin rivers . 22
48. Diagram showing comparison of nonj)eriodic oscillations of the Great
Lakes with Great Salt lake . 22
49. Diagram of nonperiodic oscillations of the Great Lakes . 23
50. Diagram of the distribution of the mean monthly precipitation at
sixteen stations in western United States . 27
51. Index map of large drainage basins . . . 32
52. Diagram of mean monthly rainfall at four stations in the Missouri
basin . . . 40
ILLUSTRATIONS.
IX
Page.
Fig. 53. Diagram of daily discharge of West Gallatin river below Spanish
creek, Montana . 43
54. Diagram of daily discharge of Madison river near Red Bluff, Montana. 48
55. Diagram of daily discharge of Missouri river at Craig, Montana . 58
56. Diagram of daily discharge of Yellowstone river near Horr, Montana . 66
57. Diagram of daily fluctuations of North Platte river, Wyoming . 83
58. Diagram of daily discharge of South Platte river, near Deansbury,
Colorado . 84
59. Diagram of daily discharge of South Platte river at Denver, Colorado. 85
60. Diagram of daily discharge of Clear creek, Colorado . 86
61. Diagram of daily discharge of North Boulder creek, Colorado . 87
62. Diagram of daily discharge of St. Vrain creek, Colorado . 88
63. Diagram of daily discharge of Big Thompson creek, Colorado . 89
64. Plan and profile of Pueblo canal, Verde valley, Arizonac . 134
65. Ancient dam, San Luis Obispo county, California . 136
66. Cross sections of canal banks, Calloway, Idaho, and Turlock canals . . 160
67. Calloway canal system and plan of headworks . 170
68. Del Norte canal system and plan of headworks . 173
69. Del Norte canal. Plan of main bifurcation . 174
70. Wyoming Development Company’s canal system. A, and cross sec¬
tion of weir, B . 182
71. Kraft Irrigation District canal system . 184
72. Kraft Irrigation District. Plan of headworks . 185
73. Kraft Irrigation District. Excavation for fall . 187
74. Pecos canal system . 189
75. Bear river canal system . . 195
76. Bear river canal. Cross section of hillside work . 197
77. Bear river canal. Cross sections of Corinne branch canal . 198
78. Idaho canal system and plan of headworks . 199
79. Turlock canal system . ' . 204
80. Turlock canal. Plan of headworks . 205
81. Turlock canal. View of sidehill work . 206
82. Turlock canal. Cross section of sidehill work . 207
83. Turlock canal tunnel . 208
84. Folsom canal system . 211
85. Arizona canal. Cross section of first weir . 221
86. Arizona canal. Cross section of second weir . 222
87. Highline canal. View of weir . 225
88. Kraft irrigation district canal. Cross section of weir . 226
89. Calloway canal. Cross section of weir . 228
90. Monte Vista canal weir . 229
91. San Diego flume. Plan, elevation, and cross section of weir . 231
92. Turlock canal. Cross section of weir . 232
93. Folsom canal weir. Hydraulic jack . 234
94. Idaho canal. Cross section of dam . 235
95. Idaho canal. Plan and elevation of headworks . , . 236
96. Pecos canal. Plan of headworks . 237
97. Pecos canal. Cross section of dam . 238
98. Del Norte canal. Elevation and cross section of regulator gates _ 240
99. Idaho canal. View of rolling regulator gate . 244
100. Arizona canal. View of escape . : . 246
101. Idaho canal. Elevation and cross section of escape . 248
102. Folsom canal. Cross section and elevation of sand gates . 249
103. Calloway canal. View of fall . 251
X
ILLUSTRATIONS.
• Page.
Fig. 104. Arizona canal cross-cut. Cross section of fall . 252
105. Fresno canal. Plan and cross section of fall . 253
106. Bear river canal. Plan and cross section of fall on Coriune branch. 254
107. Turlock canal. Cross section of fall . 254
108. Uncompahgre canal. Cross section of fall . 255
109. Grand river canal. Plan and elevation of big drop . 2.55
110. Turlock canal. Plan and. cross section of Dry creek drainage dam .. . 258
111. Types of flumes and trestles . 259
112. Idaho canal. Cross section of low flume . 260
113. San Diego flume. Cross section . 261
114. Bear river canal. View of iron flume over Malade river . 262
115. Bear river canal. Elevation and cross section of iron flume on
Coriune branch . . . 263
116. Arapaho canal. Cross section of Siphon head . 264
117. Del Norte canal. Cross section and end elevation of culvert . 265
118. Central Irrigation District canal. Elevation and cross section of
Stony creek culvert . 267
119. Water distribution, Riverside, California . 269
120. Laybonrn iron flume. Perspective and cross sections . 270
121. Calloway canal. View of distributary head . 271
122. Foote’s measuring flume, A. Plan of water divisor, B . 273
123. Irrigation by flooding . 275
124. Application of water by flooding . 276
125. Application of water by check system . 277
126. Application of water by block system . 278
127. Application of water by furrows . 279
128. Merced reservoir system . 291
129. Honey lake valley reservoir system . 294
130. Honey lake dam, cross section . 296
131. View of Walnut Grove dam during construction . 298
132. Walnut Grove dam. Cross section and elevation . 299
133. Castlewood dam. Plan, elevation, and cross section . 303
134. Bear valley reservoir system . 305
135. Old Bear valley dam. Cross section . 307
136. Old Bear valley dam. Plan and elevation . 307
137. New Bear A^alley dam. Plan and cross section . 308
138. Buchanan reservoir system . 314
139. Citizens’ Water Company dam. Cross section . 318
140. Citizens’ Water Company dam. Elevation . 319
141. Bowman dam. Plan and cross section . 323
142. Fordyce dam. Plan and cross section . 324
143. San Fernando dam . 332
144. Water wheel . 334
145. Discharge flume from steam pump, Tucson, Arizona . 337
146. Colorado wooden pipe . 339
147. Alessandro hydrant . 341
148. Buck scraper . 343
149. Fresno scraper . 344
149?). New Era excavator . 345
150. Reservoir site No. 2, Silver lake. Salt Lake county, Utah . 459
151. Reservoir site No. 3, Twin lakes. Salt Lake county, Utah . 460
152. Reservoir site No. 4, Marys lake, Salt Lake county, Utah . 461
153. Reservoir site No. 5, on Sevier river, Millard county, Utah . 462
154. Reservoir site No. 7, on Sevier river, Piute county, Utah . 466
ILLUSTRATIONS. XI
Page.
IG. 1.0.5. Reservoir site No. 8, on East fork of Sevier river, Piute county,
Utali . 467
156. Reservoir site No. 9, on Otter creek, Piute county, Utah . 470
157. Reservoir site No. 10, on East fork of Sevier river, Garfield county,
Utah . 471
1.58. Reservoir site No. 11, on East fork of Sevier river, Garfield county,
Utah . 474
159. Reservoir site No. 12, Panquiteh lake, Iron county, Utah . 475
160. Reservoir site No. 13, at Blue spring. Iron county, Utah . 477
DEPAETMENT OP THE INTEEIOK-U. S. OEOLOGIOAL SUEVEY.
WATEE SUPPLY FOE lEEIGATION.
By FREDERICK HAYNES NEWELL.
1
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CONTENTS.
Page.
Introduction . 7
Preceding reports . 7
Area irrigated . 8
Area irrigable . 9
Size of streams . 10
Kelative run-off . 13
Fluctuations of rivers and lakes . 15
N onperiodic oscillations . 18
Variations in precipitation . 25
Subsurface waters . 28
Cost and value of water supply . 30
Principal drainage basins . 31
Missouri river basin . 34
Location and area . 34
Elevation and topography . 35
Land classification . 35
Extent of irrigation . 36
Water measurements . 38
Precipitation . 39
Gallatin river . 41
Madison river . 46
Jefferson river . 49
Missouri valley . 53
Prickly Pear valley . 54
Dearborn and Sun rivers . 55
Chestnut valley and Smith river . 57
Teton and Marias rivers . 59
Judith and Musselshell rivers . 60
Milk river . 62
Yellowstone river basin . 63
Location . 63
Area and topography . 64
Area irrigated . 65
W ater measurements . 65
Precipitation . 67
Yellowstone river, above Bighorn . 68
Bighorn river . 69
Tongue river . 70
Powder river . 71
Lower Yellowstone river . 72
Platte river basin . 73
Location and area . 73
Elevation and topography . 74
3
4
CONTENTS,
Pagfci
Platte river basin — Continued,
Land classification . 75
Extent of irrigation . 75
W ater measurements . 76
Precipitation . 76
Upper North Platte . 78
Laramie river . 79
Lower North Platte . 81
South Platte, above Denver . 82
Cache la Poudre and other creeks . 86
South Platte, below Greeley . 90
Tables of mean monthly and annual discharge . 91
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Paga
Plate CVIII. Map of the drainage basin of the Missouri river in Montana.. . 34
CIX. Map of the drainage basin of the Yellowstone river . 64
CX. Map of the drainage basin of the Platte river . 74
Fig. 42, Diagram of maximum, minimum, and mean discharges of western
rivers . 11
43. Diagram of discharges of large rivers of the United States . 12
44. Diagram showing relative size of drainage basins and depth of
run-off . 13
45. Diagram of periodic oscillations of water level . 17
46. Diagram of nonperiodic oscillations of various rivers anti lakes.. 21
47. Diagram of nonperiodic oscillations of Colorado, King, and San
Joaquin rivers . 22
48. Diagram showing comparison of nonperiodic oscillations of the
Great Lakes with Great Salt lake . 22
49. Diagram of nonperiodic oscillations of the Great Lakes . 23
50. Diagram of the distribution of the mean monthly precipitation
at sixteen stations in western United States . 27
51. Index map of large drainage basins . 32
52. Diagram of mean monthly rainfall at four stations in the Missouri
basin . 40
53. Diagram of daily discharge of West Gallatin river below Spanish
creek, Montana . : . 43
54. Diagram of daily discharge of Madison river near ’Red Bluff,
Montana . 48
55. Diagram of daily discharge of Missouri river at Craig, Montana.. 58
56. Diagram of daily discharge of Yellowstone river near Horr, Mon¬
tana . 66
57. Diagram of daily fluctuations of North Platte river, AVyoming _ 83
58. Diagram of daily discharge of South Platte river near Deans-
bury, Colorado . 84
59. Diagram of daily discharge of South Platte river at Denver, Colo¬
rado . 85
60. Diagram of daily discharge of Clear creek, Colorado . 86
61. Diagram of daily discharge of North Boulder creek, Colorado _ 87
62. Diagram of daily discharge of St. Vrain creek, Colorado . 88
63. Diagram of daily discharge of Big Thompson creek, Colorado _ 89
5
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
By F. H. Newell.
INTRODUCTION.
This report is the fourth in a series, each one of which relates to a certain extent to the hydrography of the arid regions, viz, to facts con¬ cerning the quantity and distribution of water. Since these papers give the results obtained at various stages of progress, the one which is issued last must necessarily refer to data previously published, and perhaps repeat or modify some of the former statements. Before enter¬ ing upon the subject-matter of this jiaper reference should be made to the preceding discussions, which are contained, respectively, in the first, second, and third annual reports of the Irrigation Survey, these being also known as parts ii of the Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Annual Ee- ports of the TJ. S. Geological Survey.
PRECEDING REPORTS.
In the first annual report of the Irrigation Survey, on page 19, a description is given of the organization of this branch of the work, and on pages 78 to 90 Oapt. C. E. Dutton reports upon the methods of the investigation and briefly describes a few of the results then obtained. In the second rexjort, on pages 1 to 110, are given more de¬ tailed descriptions of methods and instruments, and also of the local¬ ities at which stream measurements have been made, the character of each drainage basin being briefly noted. The results of stream meas¬ urements are also shown in tabular form convenient for reference.
The third annual report of the Irrigation Survey continues the dis¬ cussion of the subject of water supply or hydrography of the arid regions, and gives the results of measurements and investigations obtained during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891. General descrip¬ tions are also given of the topographic and other features of some of the drainage basins, the discussion of the Eio Grande and Gila basins being particularly detailed. The present report, continuing in a line similar to that pursued in the cases of the drainage basins just men¬ tioned, describes with equal fullness other of the more imjiortant basins, and brings together all available information bearing ujion the water supply.
7
8
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
AREA IRRIGATED.
The total area upon which crops were raised by irrigation was, accord¬ ing to the results obtained by the Eleventh Census, 3,631,381 acres, or 5,674.03 square miles. This applies to the year ending May 31, 1890, the census being taken during the following June. Comparing this area with the total land surface west of the one hundredth meridian, it is found to be approximately only four-tenths of 1 per cent. In other words, for every acre from which crops were obtained by irrigation there were nearly 250 acres of land most of which was not utilized in any way except for pasturage.
The area of the land surface of the United States west of the one hundredth meridian and between it and the Pacific ocean is 1,371,960 square miles, not including thirty-six counties of western Oregon and Washington. Within this great extent of country are nearly all possi¬ ble combinations of soil and climate, ranging from the smooth, almost barren, plains with scanty vegetation to the high rough mountains, the peaks covered throughout the year with snow and the slopes clothed with thick forests. In a broad way four great classes of laud may be distinguished, according to the amount of moisture received or the water supply available, as shown iirmcipally by the character of the vegetation.
The following table gives approximately the amount of land embraced in each of these great classes :
Square miles.
Desert . 100, 000
Pasture . 961, 960
Firewood . 180, 000
Timber . 130, 000
Total . 1,371,960
The desert land is that within which the water supply is so small that the cattle can not obtain sufficient for drinking purposes, and the vegetation is too scanty or uncertain to be of value for pasturage. The soil is often rich, and with water would produce large crops.
The second class embraces all the Great Plain region, which, owing to the prevailing aridity, is useful mainly as pasturage. The localities at which agriculture is possible are relatively of insignificant size, although of great importance in a grazing country. This class also includes the valley lands within the Pocky Mountain region and the rolling hills, on which native grasses grow.
The land containing firewood is mainly that fringing the timbered areas, being intermediate in character between the pasture land and the high rough forested slopes or plateaus. It includes also the precipi¬ tous hillsides found at an elevation too low to receive a large or con¬ stant supply of moisture, which in general falls upon the more heavily timbered areas.
The fourth class embraces the forested areas upon the high moun-
NEWELL.]
AREA IRRIGABLE.
9
tains, where the conditions are such that trees have been able to attain a size suitable for timber. A large part of this area has been burned over at dilferent times, destroying timber whose value to the country can scarcely be estimated, and a relatively small number of the trees have been cut for lumber, to sui^ply the growing needs of the settlers. The existence of this timber, however, indicates a condition of climate and soil widely different from that prevailing over the plains or pasture lands.
The irrigated and irrigable lands are mainly included within those divisions which in their natural state are considered as desert or pas¬ ture lands. In a broad way it may be said that fully nine-tenths of this area is covered with a fertile arable soil, which only lacks sufficient moisture in* order to be of great value for agriculture. Out of this total of, in round numbers, over 610,000,000 acres there have been, accord¬ ing to the census, 3,631,381 acres, or less than six-tenths of one i)er cent, provided with a water supply sufficient to enable crops to be raised.
AREA IRRIGABLE.
The proportion of this desert or pasture land which can be brought under irrigation in future is dependent upon the thoroughness with which the water supply is utilized. It is obvious at the outset, how¬ ever, that this proportion must be small, probably under 3 per cent, but its exact amount can be determined only when the available waters of the region have been accurately measured. This simple fact, namely, that the area irrigable is governed by the amount of water flowing in the streams, at various times of the year, is often overlooked or for¬ gotten in popular discussions of the subject.
The greater part of the available water supply comes from the high mountains with precipitous slopes, a less quantity being discharged from foothills, and a still smaller quantity, irregular in time of occur¬ rence, from valleys or plains. The results of measurements have shown that the average amount of water, taking one year with another, is seldom greater than 1 cubic foot per second or second-foot per square mile of elevated and steep catchment area. The total catchment of this character within the area under discussion has been ascertained to be 360,000 square miles. This includes the greater part of the areas designated as being covered by timber and firewood. From the remain¬ ing land, namely, the xiasture and desert, there is very little water available for irrigation. Although there is a large amount of water falling upon these tracts, yet the conditions are such that streams val¬ uable to agriculture are seldom formed, for the greater iiart of the moisture either sinks into the ground and is subsequently lost by evaxi- oration, or, when coming in heavy showers, flows oft* in the streams whose beds are nearly or quite dry for the rest of the year, and tlms is plentiful only at times when there is no need of irrigation.
10
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
Assuming that there is an average annual discharge of one second- foot from each of the 300,000 square miles, the total amount of water available for the supply of the 610,000,000 acres of pasture and desert lands above-mentioned is 300,000 second-feet. Much of this water ^ however, escapes into large rivers which have cut their channels so far beneath the general level of the arable lands that the waters can not be diverted, and therefore they must be considered as lost to agricul¬ ture. This is notably the case with many rivers in the drainage basin of the Colorado river, also to a great degree in that of the Columbia. The total amount available for irrigation is therefore to be diminished by the quantity lost in this manner.
The amount of water which can be saved by storage systems in the undulating and hilly country, or utilized by the conservation of water from springs or flowing wells, is a quantity even more uncertain than that flowing from the mountains, for in this case there are few general facts of broad application. It may be assumed, however, that this amount will not exceed the quantity lost in deep drainage channels, such as those of the Colorado and Columbia systems. Taking, there¬ fore, the whole amount of water available in the arid region as 360,000 second-feet, the area of land which can be irrigated can be approxi¬ mately ascertained by assuming a standard duty of water. If, for ex¬ ample, 1 second-foot flowing throughout the year will irrigate 100 acres, then the total irrigable area is api)roximately 36,000,000 acres, or about ten times that upon which crops were raised by irrigation in the census year. With an average water duty of 150 acres to the second-foot, the area irrigable will be 54,000,000 acres, and so on, according to the duty of water assumed.
SIZE OF STREAMS.
The relative amount of water discharged by various rivers of impor¬ tance to irrigation is shown by the diagram. Fig. 42, which gives at a glance the size of these streams at times of high and low water, and also the average for one or two years or more. From this diagram may be inferred the acreage which possibly can be irrigated by each of these streams by assuming a standard duty of water. In this figure the names of the rivers are given in the space to the left, and to the right of each of these is a bar whose length indicates the quantity of water in the stream. The vertical lines give the quantity in cubic feet per second. For example, in the case of the first stream, the West Galla¬ tin, the bar almost reaches the 4,000 line, indicating that the discharge fell under this amount, while in the case of the Missouri it was over 16,000. The black portion of the bar, by its length, indicates the mini¬ mum discharge of the stream for the time during which measurements were made, while the shaded portion, including the black, shows the average discharge. The total length of the bar, including the black, cross-hatched, and unshaded portions, indicates the maximum discharge.
NEWELL.]
SIZE OF STREAMS.
11
Ill the case of two of the streams shown in this diagram, the maxi¬ mum discharge exceeds the amount which can be shown on the sheet, that of the Salt being 300,000 second-feet, requiring to show it a dia¬ gram containing seventeen times the space allowed on Fig. 42, and in
Xame of river.
W est Giillatin . . . .
Madison .
Missouri .
Sun .
Yellowstone .
Cache la Poudrc . .
Arkansas .
Eio Grande (1) - - - . Eio Grande (2) . . . . Kio Grande (3)....
Gila .
Salt .
East Carson .
West Carson .
Bear (4) .
Bear (5) . .
Ogden .
Weber .
American Fork...
Provo . .
Spanish Fork -
Sevier .
Henrj- Fork . .
Falls .
Teton .
Snake .
Owyhee . .
Malheur .
Weiser . .
Discharge in second-feet.
•-* W hA M
pa _p ^ ^ pi
I
M I" I — ]
(1) at Del Xorte, Colo. ; (2) at Embudo, N. Mex. ; (3) at El Paso, Tex. ; (4) at Battle Creek, Idaho ; (5) at
Collinston, Utah.
Fig. 42. — Diagram of maximum, minimum, and moan diseharges of western rivers.
the case of the Snake 50,000 second-feet, or about three times the allot¬ ted space. In order to make a comparison between the streams of the arid region and some well-known rivers in the east, a second diagram.
12
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
Fig. 43, is introduced, showing similar facts, the scale, however, being much smaller. The relative change in scale can be seen by comparing the small space opposite the words “Upper Missouri” in Fig. 43 with the length of the line representing the same quantity in Fig. 42, this latter being the third line or bar from the top. In Fig. 43 the flood discharges of the Snake river at Idaho Falls, Idaho, and of the Salt river above Phcenix, Arizona, are shown in their relative proportions, the mean discharges being, however, scarcely perceptible on this diagram. The computations of discharge of Sacramento river apply to
I-*
o
o o o
Narrte of river.
Upper Missouri..
Snake .
Salt
Sacramento
Connecticut
Potomac .
Savannah
Missouri
Upper Mississippi. . .
Ohio
Pig. 43. — Diai^ram of discharges of large rivers of the United States.
the total outflow as determined by the state engineer of California. The remaining streams shown on Fig. 43, those in the eastern part of the country, were measured by ofiicers of the Corjis of Engineers, U. S. Army, except in the case of the Potomac, where gaugings were made by this Survey. The quantities shown on the diagram apply to the total discharge. The amount of water in the Mississippi at a point below the mouth of the Ohio would be represented by combining the three lines or bars at the bottom of the diagram. These three sets of values there shown, namely, for the Missouri, Upper Mississippi, and Ohio, represent strictly the discharges for the year 1882 only.
Discharge in second-feet.
NEWELL.]
DEPTH OF WATER DRAINED.
13
RELATIVE RUN-OFF.
The run-off, or quantity of water discharged per unit of area of the drainage basin, is exceedingly variable, being dependent upon the to¬ pography and climate of the drainage basin, each of these embracing too many details to be enumerated in full. The difierence in quantity is illustrated by Fig. 44, which shows in a diagramatic form the relative size of the basins drained and the amount of water flowing from them in the conrse of the year. Each circle in this diagram represents by its size the area of the drainage basin named, the latter being, as a matter of fact, exceedingly irregular in outline. The black line or bar at the right of each circle gives by its length the relative depth of run-off, the unit adopted being the depth in inches per square mile
W Gallatin# Madison^ Red Rock^
Mis
Sun #
Yellowst(mp Cache W laPoudre ^ Arkansa^^ at Canon
Rio Grander
at Del Norte
Rio Gra, at EmbU'
^4^
19
20
E.Carson • W. Carson— • Bear at Battle C'S
Bear at Collind
Ogden •
Weber (fk American Provo •
Spanish FM
Sevier
Henry FK>i r alls
T eton ( Snak?
at Eagle RockI
Weiseh
2S
IN.
Fig. 44. — Diagram showing relative size of drainage basins and deptli of run-off.
drained. The vertical lines indicate the number of inches; in the case of the West Gallatin, for example, a little less than 15 inches of water per year came from the drainage basin, or, in other words, if the water which flowed in the West Gallatin could be held without loss, it would cover a plain surface the size of the catchment area to a depth of less than 15 inches.
By the examination of this diagram. Fig. 44, it will be seen that as a rule the discharge xier square mile is less from the large basins than from the smaller, or, in other words, the larger the basin the smaller
14
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
tlie run-off. This is a fact noticed many years ago by engineers, and often recognized in computations of probable discharge of rivers based upon the area of the drainage basin and depth of rainfall. The decrease in run-off does not vary directly as the area of the basin, and for sim¬ plicity it has sometimes been taken as a function of the square root of the area. In this form it has been used in the formulas quoted in various works upon this subject.
The cause of the decrease in the proportion of run-off as a larger part of any drainage basin is taken is due principally to the fact that in the larger catchment areas there is usually included a greater percentage of level land, while in a small basin, embracing the head¬ waters of some stream, the catchment area may consist wholly of high, steep mountain slopes, upon which there is heavy precipitation and from which the water flows with great rapidity, the loss from evaporation being greatly reduced. This, for exami)le, is the case in each instance shown in the diagram where the depth of run-off is great. The West Gallatin, Madison, and Bedrock, the East and West Carson, and others have a catchment area composed almost exclusively of steep mountain slopes.
The decrease in depth of run-off with increase of area drained is shown in a striking manner in the case of the Eio Grande, the dis¬ charge of which beyond a point a short distance from the upper head waters increases but slightly, although the area tributary to the stream continues to grow larger and larger. In the case of this river, how¬ ever, some allowance must be made for the peculiar condition of the drainage basin, embracing large catchment areas from which no water flows except in time of flood. In fact, as pointed out by R. T. Hill, the Eio Grande may be considered as a stream which has cut its way through a series of lost-river basins, and which, but for the outlet near El Paso, would be classified with the streams of the Great Inte¬ rior basin.
There are occasional exceptions to the general rule that the average depth of run-off decreases as the basin grows larger j as, for example, in the case of the Bear, where, as shown by the diagram, the run-off at Collinston, below Cache valley, is greater than at Battle Creek, at the head of the same valley. This is due to the large run-off from the mountains on the east side of Cache valley, the topography being far more broken than at the head waters. The rule in this case will hold good if the streams from these mountains are considered as the main source of supply for the river and the water entering from other sources as tributary to these.
For convenience of reference the following table has been prepared, showing the mean annual run-off from several of the more important drainage basins, these being arranged in the order of proportion of discharge. This relation is expressed in this table not only in depth in inches, but also in second-feet per square mile drained, viz, the
NEWELL.]
AVERAGE RUN OFF.
15
average discharge for the year in cubic feet per second is divided by the area in square m iles from which the water comes. To obtain the dejith in inches, it is necessary to multiply the second-feet per square mile by 13.575:
|
Run-off. |
|||
|
River. |
Drainage area. |
Depth. |
Second- feet per squareinile. |
|
Sq. miles. 70 66 |
Inches. 32-4 30-0 26T 25-0 |
2-38 2-22 1-92 1-84 1-84 1-65 1-05 |
|
|
East Carson. . . |
414 |
||
|
Ogden . |
360 |
||
|
Henry Fork . |
931 |
||
|
Falls . |
594 |
22-4 14-2 |
|
|
Snake . |
10, 100 850 |
||
|
West Gallatin . |
14*n |
1-03 1-02 |
|
|
Yellowstone . |
2, 700 1,519 2,085 1, 400 |
13*9 |
|
|
Truckee . |
12*9 |
•95 |
|
|
Madison . |
12*8 |
•95 |
|
|
Rio Grande at Del Xorte . |
12*8 |
•95 |
|
|
Teton . |
967 |
12-1 |
•89 |
|
640 |
11‘4 |
*84 |
|
|
TV^eiser . |
1,670 1,600 1, 175 |
9-8 |
•72 |
|
Weber . |
8-3 |
•61 |
|
|
Sun . |
8-2 |
■61 |
|
|
Bear at Collinston . |
6, 000 4,500 1, 060 |
5-4 |
•40 |
|
Bear at Battle Creek . |
4-5 |
■33 |
|
|
Cache la Poudre. . . |
4-0 |
•30 |
|
|
Missouri . |
17, 615 3, 060 |
3-9 |
•29 |
|
Arkansas (6 years) . |
3-7 |
•27 |
|
|
Spanish Fork . |
'670 |
3-5 |
•26 |
|
Average . |
13-8 |
1-01 |
|
As will be seen by this table, the depth of run-off varies greatly, ranging from over 32 inches in the case of the West Carson, which heads in the Sierra Nevadas, down to 3.5 inches for the Spanish Fork, whose catchment area is comi)aratively low and broad. The average of these twenty-three cases is 13.8 inches, or at the rate of a trifle over 1 second-foot per square mile. The catchments of these streams being well distributed throughout the mountainous area of the arid region, the average run-off as obtained in this way may be considered as being fairly representative of the discharge from the higher mountains of the West, and it has been used in this way in the preceding discussion.
FLUCTUATIONS OF RIVERS AND LAKES.
The average discharge, as discussed above, is a matter of first impor¬ tance in considerations of water supply, but second only to it is a knowledge of the fluctuations which take place in the quantity deliv¬ ered day by day or year by year. If the stream flowed at about a certain rate for long periods at a time or fluctuated with the seasons, returning to a former level each month, the subject of water control would be comj)aratively simple 5 but, unfortunately, the quantity of water flowing in a river is the resultant of so many variables, that it is impossible to predict with any degree of certainty what will be the amount flowiag in the stream during the next crop season.
16
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
Farmers have learned by experience to estimate thepossible discharge during the next succeeding crop season by the general appearance of the snows in the mountains, but beyond these rough approximations, as to whether the stream will be high or low, it is impossible to obtain definite knowledge. A study of the character of the fluctuations, how¬ ever, which have taken place in i^ast years throws light upon the probable behavior of the stream, and the longer such observations have been kept up the better able are the irrigators to judge of the probabilities.
The variation in the amount of water discharged day by day is shown graphically upon a number of plates published in the preceding annual reports, and also in a number of diagrams on the following pages. An examination of these diagrams shows that most of the rivers have a certain similarity in the character of the variation, namely, in that the water increases in amount during the late spring or early summer and then decreases to the minimum in September or October. This is the seasonal change which may be traced on nearly all diagrams of river height or discharge. Comparing the diagram for one year with that of another for the same stream, it is seen at a glance that although there is a certain similarity, yet no two actually coincide, the floods of one year coming earlier or later than those of another, and the total amount of water discharged diftering by a large amount. There are thus, besides the change from day to day, two classes of fluctuations to be considered: First, the monthly or seasonal, which from its regularity may be called the periodic fluctuation, and second, the change from year to year, which from its great irregularity is known as the non¬ periodic oscillation.
The periodic oscillation or variation in height or quantity of water in rivers and lakes is a matter which can be readily determined by meas¬ urements carried on through a series of years. It follows in a general way the changes of temperature and is afiected to a certain extent by variations in the amount of rain or snow fall 5 the relation in this latter case, however, not being one whose connection can be readily traced, except in the case of rivers similar to the Gila, receiving a great part of their waters from violent local storms. These rivers, however, can scarcely be said to have a periodic oscillation, although the storms are more apt to occur during certain mouths of the year. On PI. Lix of the third irrigation report ^ a diagram is given, showing the periodic oscil¬ lation of four rivers in connection with the average rainfall at a typical station in the basin of each stream.
The periodic fluctuation of a number of important rivers and lakes of the United States is illustrated in Fig, 45, which shows in a generalized form the average height for a number of years. At the top is shown the average gauge height of the Missouri river at Yankton, S. Dak., and below this of the Cache la Poudre and Arkansas rivers near the point where they leave the mountains in Colorado. In the case of the
' Twelfth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, Irrigation p. 226.
NEWELL.]
OSCILLATIONS OF WATER LEVEL.
17
first stream the rise to the June flood is rapid and the decline is gradual, while in the other two the June flood is more abrupt, the water falling nearly to the minimum in August. Below these is given the average gauge height of the Arkansas at Fort Smith, Ark., showing the differ¬ ence in the behavior of the river at a point farther away from the moun¬ tains. Here floods prevail from February until June, then falling to low water in September or October. The early floods come from the lower
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec.
plains region, and these are followed in turn by high water from more elevated portions of the basin, the head- water floods coming last of all.
The fifth figure from the top is that of the average gauge height of the Colorado river at Yuma, Arizona; the floods in this great stream culminating in J une, as do those of the mountain streams of the arid region. Below this is the San Joaquin river of California, whose great¬ est discharge comes a little earlier in the season, the high water of winter beginning in December or even in November. The rise in both of these rivers is similar in many ways to that of Great Salt lake and 13 GEOL., PT. Ill - 2
18
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
Utah lake, in Utah, the maximum in both of these occurring in June and the altitude of the surface falling gently toward winter. The last four diagrams on the page show the behavior of the principal Eastern rivers. This shows the later spring floods of the Northern rivers as compared with those farther South, the high water in the Savannah being earlier than in the Potomac and in the latter than in the Connec¬ ticut. The curve of river height of the Monougahela is typical of that for other tributaries of the Ohio.
NONPERIODIC OSCILLATIONS.
The nonperiodic oscillations give rise to the greatest concern on the part of the engineer and the irrigator, for while he can be reasonably certain regarding the character of the periodic variation he must at all times be on the watch for extraordinary occurrences for which there are no analogies. The rivers and lakes may for a time increase in volume or may apparently shrink so greatly as to cause serious alarm as to their permanence. In the humid regions these nonperiodic oscil¬ lations are of less moment, but in the arid regions, where water is always scarce, any change for the better or worse has an immediate effect upon the community as a whole.
The extent and character of nonperiodic oscillations may be illus¬ trated by a few instances taken from streams in Colorado and other states. By reference to the table given below the average monthly dis¬ charge of the Cache la Poudre can be seen for the months from April to October inclusive for the years 1884 to 1891. This table shows that the average discharge for the seven months gradually decreased from 1,573 second-feet in 1884 to 373 second-feet in 1888, a decrease of 1,200 second- feet, or over three-quarters of the amount flowing in 1884. Since 1888 the discharge has increased, being in 1891 less than one-half that in the year first named. This, as can be imagined, is a most serious matter; for if streams are liable to shrink to a third or even a quarter of their value, the owners of the canals taking out the water, as well as the irri¬ gators, must of necessity suffer.
Mean monthly discharge in second-feet of Cache la Poudre creek, Colorado.
|
Year. |
April. |
May. |
June. |
July. |
August. |
September. |
October. |
Average for seven montbs. |
|
1884 . |
219 |
2, 537 |
4,812 |
2, 144 |
792 |
305 |
205 |
1, 573 |
|
188.1 . |
447 |
1,419 |
2, 910 |
1,857 |
656 |
272 |
203 |
1,109 |
|
1886 . |
*300 |
1, 309 |
1,876 |
717 |
338 |
185 |
129 |
693 |
|
1887 . |
*200 |
*1, 300 |
1, 401 |
735 |
307 |
175 |
*120 |
605 |
|
1888 . |
181 |
483 |
1, 113 |
420 |
213 |
109 |
*90 |
373 |
|
1889 . |
113 |
649 |
1,338 |
514 |
187 |
67 |
69 |
419 |
|
1890 . |
200 |
1,044 |
1,280 |
649 |
287 |
103 |
80 |
520 |
|
1891 . |
144 |
1,221 |
1,900 |
541 |
228 |
138 |
118 |
613 |
|
Mean . |
225 |
1,245 |
2, 079 |
947 |
376 |
109 |
126 |
738 |
* Estimated.
Note. — These data, obtained for the most part from measurements made hy the state engineer of Colorado, have been published in different form in the Twelfth Annual Report of the tJ. S. Geological Survey, part 2, irrigation, page 348. The interpolations given above, since they have been computed for the whole month, differ somewhat from the figures in the report named, these latter relating to portions of months only.
NEWELL.]
VARIATIONS IN DISCHARGE.
19
A fluctuation of a similar character, althougli not as decided, is shown by the Arkansas, whose drainage basin is farther south, but in many ways similar to that of the stream above mentioned. As shown by the following table, .the average discharge in 188G was 1,572 second-feet, and in 1889 was only 523 second-feet, or about one-third of the former amount. In succeeding years, however, the discharge increased, the average in 1891 being 1,382 second-feet, or about two and a half fifties that of 1889.
r
Mean monthly discharge in second-feet of the Arkansas river at Canyon City, Colorado.
|
Year. |
April. |
May. |
June. |
July. |
August. |
September. |
October. |
Average for 7 mos. |
|
1886 . |
*600 |
2, 285 |
4,190 |
1,192 |
1, no |
1,029 |
*600 |
1,572 |
|
1887 . |
*450 |
*1, 875 |
2, 602 |
2, 510 |
1,284 |
844 |
*600 |
1,452 |
|
1888 . |
*1, 000 |
1,440 |
2, 090 |
1,350 |
932 |
605 |
*500 |
1,131 |
|
1889 . |
300 |
600 |
1,374 |
602 |
340 |
220 |
223 |
523 |
|
1890 . |
477 |
2,090 |
2, 611 |
1,571 |
670 |
519 |
531 |
1,210 |
|
1891 . |
857 |
2, 012 |
3, 291 |
1,468 |
951 |
473 |
624 |
1,382 |
|
1892.-. . |
522 |
1,241 |
2, 787 |
1, 798 |
769 |
435 |
511 |
1, 152 |
|
Mean . |
601 |
1,649 |
2, 707 |
1,499 |
865 |
589 |
513 |
1,203 |
*The figures for 1886 and 1887 have been computed from the discharge measurements at Pueblo, allowance being made for the diflerence in drainage areas. See Eleventh Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, part 2, Irrigation, pages 97-98; also Twelfth Annual Report, part 2, page 349.
That these oscillations, so strongly marked in the case of the Cache la Poudre and Arkansas, are not local may be seen by making com- liarisons with records of streams in other parts of the country. There are few rivers in the arid region, however, which afford records of con¬ siderable length, and the character of the oscillations can perhaps best be shown by records of the height of Utah lake, a fresh water lake in Utah, and for a longer period by those for Great Salt lake, into which it empties. As shown by the following table Utah lake rose in height from 1884 to 1885 and then fell steadily until 1889, when it began to rise again. By comparison with the longer record of the height of Great Salt lake, it appears that this slight rise and continuous decline for a number of years are part ofan irregular oscillation. The level of this latter lake has been falling, with occasional interruptions, for about fifteen years, this grad¬ ual decline being checked for a time by high water in 1885 and 1886.
Mean monthly height of Utah lake, Utah, above compromise line.
|
Tear. |
Jan. |
Feb. |
Mar. |
Apr. |
May. |
June. |
July. |
Aug. |
Sept. |
Oct. |
- w — Kov. |
Dec. |
Annual. |
|
- |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
|
1884 . . . |
—0-7 |
-0-3 |
0-3 |
0-8 |
2-2 |
4-4 |
4-6 |
3-5 |
2-6 |
2-4 |
2-3 |
2-2 |
2-02 |
|
1885 . . . |
2-4 |
2-6 |
2-5 |
2-7 |
3-4 |
4-2 |
3-9 |
3T |
2-6 |
2-2 |
21 |
2T |
2-82 |
|
1886 . . . |
2-2 |
2-3 |
2'3 |
2-5 |
3-0 |
3-2 |
2-6 |
1-7 |
0-9 |
0-5 |
0-4 |
0-6 |
1-85 |
|
1887 . . - |
0-8 |
0-9 |
0-9 |
0-8 |
1-0 |
1-2 |
0-9 |
00 |
-0-7 |
—IT |
—1-2 |
—IT |
0-20 |
|
1888 ... |
-0-8 |
—0-5 |
-OT |
00 |
—0-2 |
—0-7 |
—1-2 |
—1-5 |
--1-8 |
—21 |
—2-5 |
—2-6 |
— 1T7 |
|
1889 ... |
—2-5 |
—2-2 |
—1-6 |
—1-3 |
—1-9 |
—2-4 |
—2-9 |
— 3'3' |
—3-7 |
— 4T |
—40 |
—3-3 |
—2-77 |
|
1890 . . . |
-2-8 |
—2-2 |
-1-6 |
-IT |
—0-5 |
OT |
—0-4 |
—0-9 |
—1-2 |
—1-4 |
—1-5 |
—1-7 |
—1-27 |
|
1891 . . . |
—1-7 |
—1-4 |
—0-8 |
—0-2 |
0-3 |
0-8 |
OT |
—0-5 |
—0-9 |
—1-2 |
—1-3 |
— 1'2 |
—0-67 |
|
1892 . . . |
0-8 |
— 0-1 |
0-2 |
0-2 |
0-3 |
||||||||
|
. |
|||||||||||||
|
Means. |
—0-43 |
—0-10 |
0-23 |
0-49 |
0-84 |
1-35 |
0-95 |
0-26 |
—0-28 |
—0-69 |
—0-71 |
-0-62 |
— Oil |
Note.— These data have been obtained from a survey of Utah Lake and from records kept by various individuals, notably James Aitken, Lake Shore, Utah county, Utah. All records have been reduced to compromise line, viz, an arbitrary height marked by two monuments, one near the mouth of Jordan river, the other near the mouth of the old channel of Spanish Fork. This height, when established in 1885, by agreement between the counties of Salt Lake and Utah was assumed to be 3 feet 3.5 inches above low water. (See also diagram of fiuctuations in Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, part 2, Irrigation, page 336, Fig. 229.)
20
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
Mean annual height of Great Salt lake, Utah, above Lake Shore zero.
|
Tear. |
Jan. |
Feb. |
Mar. |
Apr. |
May |
June. |
J uly. |
Aug. |
Sept. |
Oct. |
Nov. |
Dec. |
Annual. |
|
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
|
|
1875 . . . |
. |
5-7 |
5-6 |
5-5 |
5-7 |
||||||||
|
1876 . . . |
60 |
61 |
6-3 |
6-4 |
6-8 |
7-5 |
7-6 |
7.2 |
6-8 |
6-7 |
*6-6 |
*6-6 |
6.7 |
|
1877 . - |
7-3 |
61 |
5-8 |
60 |
|||||||||
|
1878 . . . |
59 |
*5-9 |
6-0 |
*61 |
6-2 |
6-3 |
61 |
*5-8 |
*5-5 |
*5-2 |
4-8 |
4-7 |
5-7 |
|
1879 |
50 |
2-5 |
2-6 |
40 |
|||||||||
|
1880 . . . |
2-7 |
2-6 |
2-8 |
2-9 |
3-2 |
3-3 |
3-2 |
2-8 |
2-3 |
1-9 |
1-7 |
1.7 |
2 6 |
|
1881... |
2-0 |
2-5 |
2-6 |
2-7 |
3-1 |
3-4 |
3-2 |
2-8 |
2.3 |
2-1 |
2-0 |
21 |
2-6 |
|
1882... |
2-2 |
2-3 |
2-4 |
2-6 |
2-9 |
2-9 |
2-6 |
2-3 |
1-7 |
1-4 |
1-4 |
1-4 |
2-2 |
|
1883 . . . |
1-4 |
1-5 |
1.5 |
1-7 |
*1-8 |
*2-0 |
*2-1 |
*2-0 |
1-7 |
0-9 |
0-5 |
04 |
1-5 |
|
1884 . . . |
0-4 |
0-5 |
0-8 |
1-2 |
1-8 |
2-5 |
2-8 |
2-5 |
2-4 |
2-3 |
2-2 |
2-3 |
1-8 |
|
1885 . . . |
2-6 |
2-8 |
30 |
3-3 |
3-6 |
4-0 |
4-2 |
40 |
3.5 |
3.3 |
3.2 |
3-2 |
3-4 |
|
1886 . . . |
3-5 |
3-8 |
41 |
4-3 |
4-5 |
4-6 |
4-2 |
*4-0 |
*3-8 |
3-6 |
3-4 |
3-6 |
3-9 |
|
1887 . . . |
3-5 |
3-5 • |
3-8 |
3-9 |
4-0 |
40 |
3.8 |
3.5 |
2-9 |
2.6 |
2.5 |
*2-5 |
3-4 |
|
1888... |
2-6 |
2-7 |
2-8 |
30 |
2-9 |
2-7 |
2-3 |
2-0 |
1-6 |
1-3 |
09 |
10 |
2-2 |
|
1889 . . . |
10 |
1-2 |
15 |
1.2 |
1.2 |
0.9 |
0.3 |
—0-3 |
— 10 |
— 10 |
— 0-9 |
—0-9 |
0 3 |
|
1890 . . . |
—0-8 |
—0-4 |
0-0 |
0-2 |
0-7 |
1-0 |
0-8 |
0-5 |
00 |
— 0-4 |
— 0-4 |
— 0-4 |
0.1 |
|
1891... |
—0-3 |
—0-3 |
0-0 |
0-1 |
0-3 |
0-4 |
0-1 |
— 0-3 |
— 0-5 |
— 0-6 |
— 0-7 |
— 0-8 |
—0-2 |
|
Mean. |
2-33 |
2-48 |
2-68 |
2-83 |
3-20 |
3.25 |
3-37 |
2-77 |
2-58 |
2-56 |
2.41 |
2.23 |
2-72 |
* Estimated.
Note. — The data from which the greater part of these figures have been obtained are to be found in Gilbert’s Monograph on Lake Bonneville, pp. 233-238.
These facts are best shown by reference to Fig. 46, which gives in graphic form the averages of the mean values shown in the above four tables. The rapid decrease of water in each of the rivers and lakes just mentioned clearly appears, although the maximum and minimum jioints do not happen on the same years in each case. The longer record of Great Salt lake gives a hint as to what may have been the amount of water in Utah lake, and possibly in the streams during preceding years. According to this diagram the height of Great Salt lake has been as a whole steadily decreasing, but that this is only the latter part of a great fluctuation, a return from unusually high water to conditions more nearly normal, can be seen by referring to a diagram contained in Gilbert’s monograph on Lake Bonneville.^ According to this figure, the high water of 1876 is not far from the maximum for this century at least, while the low water of 1890 may be considered as being above the average height previous to 1865.
The most •prominent feature shown in Fig. 46 is the unusually high water prevailing about 1885. This is a condition which has been noticed in many other localities, namely, that from 1884 to 1886 there was an extraordinarily large stream discharge and that lakes increased in height, in some localities the rise reaching its maximum in 1884, in others not until later. For comparison with the rivers of Colorado and the lakes of Utah just mentioned may be given the Colorado river and the San Joaquin, the former draining the western part of Colo¬ rado, the eastern half of Utah and nearly all of Arizona, and the lat¬ ter receiving its waters from the western slope of the Sierra FTevadas. These, as will be seen by examination of Fig. 47, show a great rise in
' Lake Bonneville, by Grove Carl Gilbert, Washington, 1890, Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, Vol. 1, page 243, Fig. 33.
NEWELL.]
DECREASE OF WATER SUPPLY.
21
1884, followed by a decline more or less gradual and an increase toward the end of the decade. On this same diagram is given a curve, show¬ ing the variation in rainfall at all of the stations in the western part of the United States, where record has been kept for the past decade.
The average annual rainfall, as shown on Fig. 47, agrees quite closely
76 77 76 7S=
|
o |
«o |
o |
|
(0 |
«0 |
O) |
|
2 ai |
A2 63 64 S 86 a7 68 89 |
GO |
|
1600 |
( |
;ach |
E L |
K PO |
UDR |
L CR |
1600 |
|||||||||
|
1400 |
1400 |
|||||||||||||||
|
1200 |
} |
1200 |
||||||||||||||
|
1000 |
• |
lOOQ |
||||||||||||||
|
eoo |
||||||||||||||||
|
600 |
600 |
|||||||||||||||
|
400 |
400 |
|||||||||||||||
|
1600 |
AR |
KAN |
SAS |
Rl\ |
ER. |
1600 |
||||||||||
|
1400 |
1400 |
|||||||||||||||
|
1200 |
1200 |
|||||||||||||||
|
1000 |
t |
1000 |
||||||||||||||
|
800 |
600 |
|||||||||||||||
|
600 |
600 |
|||||||||||||||
|
400 |
.. |
400 |
||||||||||||||
Fig. 46.— Diagram of nonperiodic oscillations of various rivers and lakes.
with the behavior of the rivers, more closely, in fact, than would have been anticipated. It shows that, taking the country as a whole, there was an extraordinary amount of precipitation during 1884. At about that time the great increase in rainfall was noticed and popularly at¬ tributed to the effects of cultivation and to other causes under the con¬ trol of man. That these fluctuations in precipitation are widespread,
22
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
|
o |
lo |
o |
|
o |
« |
0) |
|
2 3 4 ® 6 T |
6 9? |
|
1 |
bo |
-Of |
!A |
lO |
RI' |
; |
|||||||
|
j |
|||||||||||||
|
/ |
/ |
24 |
|||||||||||
|
?? |
7 |
T |
) |
22 |
|||||||||
|
t |
\ |
4 |
— |
r |
29 |
||||||||
|
t |
J |
/ |
and wholly remote from liumau influence even in the slightest degree, hardly needs discussion at present.
For comparison with the fluctua¬ tions of Great Salt lake it is inter¬ esting to note the average height of water in the Great Lakes, viz,
Superior, Michigan, Erie, and On¬ tario, during the same years. This is given on Fig. 48, and an exami¬ nation shows thatin a minor degree there is a certain coincidence. For instance, there are in both cases times of relatively high water in 1870, 1877, andl885-’87, after which date both fall. These points of agreement, however, are equaled or surpassed in importance by dif¬ ferences in the general form of the curve as a whole. Salt lake having unusually high water from 1870 to 1880, while the diagram for the Great Lakes shows almost the re¬ verse. The important distinction in the two should not be overlooked, namely, that Great Salt lake has no outlet to discharge its excess
discharge water, while the Great Lakes have.
The nonperiodic variations in height in rivers and lakes, while taking place in humid regions, are not as generally noticed as in the case
Fig. 47. — Diagram of nonperiodic oscillations of Colorado, King, and San Joaquin rivers.
Fig. 48. — Diagram showing comparison of nonperiodic oscillations of the Great Lakes with Great
Salt lake.
NEWELL.]
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE GREAT LAKES.
23
of the waters of arid lauds, because, water beiug far iii excess of all demands, an iucrease or dimiuutiou passes unheeded by the uublic,
o >0 o IT) o lo o
vD <0 N- <0 oO O)
5l 234f9678 9^1234^6789^ 234g6789g 2
|
—K. 2 |
f ( |
< |
> |
/ |
L |
£ |
0 |
N’ |
■/ |
0 |
i |
) 1 |
< |
) |
% |
2 |
|||||||||||||||
|
> |
< |
> |
< |
) |
< |
> i |
I |
> |
< |
> |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
3. |
< |
t |
r |
1 |
3 |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
< |
> |
( |
< |
> |
< |
> |
) |
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
4 |
< |
> |
4 |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
4 |
< |
1 |
Fig. 49 _ Diagram of nonperiodic oscillations of tlie Great Lakes.
although the same amount of change in the arid region would he of vital importance. Occasionally, however, circumstances occur by which these
24
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
oscillations are forced upon public attention, as, for instance, in the case of Lake Michigan, which from 1879 rose steadily until 1880, and alarm was excited for the safety of the wharves and other property at Chicago. In the following years, however, the lake fell more rapidly than it rose, until in 1891 there was another alarm, but from the oppo¬ site cause, namely, that the lake was retreating so rapidly that it threatened to leave the wharves high and dry.
Observations have been kept of the height of the Great Lakes for over thirty years, giving one the best records of oscillations of water level in this country. It is instructive to examine this record, shown in the following table, in connection with the present subject, and to note the changes that have occurred during three decades. These facts are also on Fig. 49, which gives diagramatically the mean annual water level at stations on lakes Superior, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, the small circles indicating the average height for the year noted at the top of the figure. The undulating line passing through some of these points is a smoothed-out curve, constructed by the use of the simple formula (^+2&+c), in which h' is the smoothed value for any year, a the observed value for the year preceding, b the observed value for the year under consideration, and c for the succeeding year:*
Mean annual height beloiv plane of reference.
|
Tear. |
Superior, j Michigan. ' |
Erie. |
Ontario. |
Mean. |
|
|
• |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
|
I860 . |
2*01 |
1*61 |
2*.^1 |
||
|
1861 . |
2-03 |
1-53 |
1*53 |
||
|
1862 . |
2-68 |
2-07 |
1-42 |
1-54 |
1-93 |
|
1863 . |
3-02 |
2-54 |
1-71 |
1-94 |
2-30 |
|
1864 . |
3-34 |
316 |
2-31 |
212 |
2-73 |
|
1865 . |
2-93 |
3-40 |
2-67 |
2-38 |
2-85 |
|
1866 . |
2-94 |
3-73 |
2-53 |
2-72 |
2.98 |
|
1867 . |
2-72 |
3-29 |
2-50 |
1-77 |
2-57 |
|
1868 . |
2-91 |
3-78 |
2-88 |
319 |
319 |
|
1869 . |
2-58 |
3-66 |
2-46 |
2-34 |
2-76 |
|
1870 . |
2-89 |
2-75 |
1-83 |
1-26 |
218 |
|
1871 . |
3-25 |
2-82 |
2-42 |
2-63 |
2-78 |
|
1872 . |
317 |
410 |
3-38 |
4-16 |
3-70 |
|
1873 . |
2-84 |
3-45 |
2-67 |
3-09 |
301 |
|
1874 . |
2.88 |
2-96 |
216 |
2-34 |
2-59 |
|
1875 . |
2-75 |
3-21 |
2-83 |
3-63 |
3-11 |
|
1876 . |
2-42 |
2-08 |
1-41 |
1-77 |
1-92 |
|
1877 . |
2-87 |
2-31 |
2-96 |
||
|
1878 . . |
3-37 |
2-62 |
1-82 |
2-36 |
2-54 |
|
1879 . |
4-01 |
3-54 |
2-58 |
2-71 |
3-21 |
|
1880 . . |
3-55 |
3-40 |
3*11 |
||
|
1881 . |
3-10 |
2-88 |
3-42 |
||
|
1882 . |
314 |
2-5] |
1-63 |
2-3.5 |
2-41 |
|
1883 . |
3-37 |
2-36 |
1-84 |
2-40 |
2-49 |
|
1884 . |
3-51 |
2-26 |
1-77 |
1-95 |
2-37 |
|
1885 . |
3-27 |
2-01 |
1-87 |
2-49 |
2-41 |
|
1886 . |
3-45 |
1-77 |
1-76 |
1-77 |
219 |
|
1887 . |
3'51 |
2-41 |
1-80 |
2-19 |
2-48 |
|
1888 . |
3-22 |
3-03 |
2-49 |
3-37 |
3-03 |
|
1889 . |
3-18 |
3-56 |
2-75 |
3-18 |
3-17 |
|
1890 . |
3-31 |
3-68 |
2-05 |
2-23 |
2-82 |
‘In this connection see preliminary report by Charles A. Schott on “ Fluctnations in the Level of Lake Champlain and Average Height of its Surface above the Sea,” Appendix No. 7, An. Rep, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1887, p. 171.
NEWELL.]
MONTHLY OSCILLATIONS OF LAKES.
25
Mean monthly height heloie plane of reference.
|
Month. |
Superior. |
Michigan. |
Erie. |
Ontario. |
Mean. |
|
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
Feet. |
|
|
January . |
3-44 |
3-35 |
2-42 |
3-08 |
307 |
|
February . |
3-65 |
3-31 |
2-49 |
3-06 |
3T3 |
|
March . |
3-70 |
3T5 |
2-30 |
2-84 |
300 |
|
April . |
3-62 |
2-94 |
1'83 |
2-26 |
206 |
|
May . |
3-22 |
2-69 |
1-51 |
1-83 |
2-31 |
|
Juno . |
2-96 |
2-45 |
1-35 |
1-68 |
211 |
|
July . |
2-71 |
2'37 |
1-39 |
1-74 |
205 |
|
August . |
2-62 |
2-43 |
lA.'j |
2-02 |
2-16 |
|
September . |
2-61 |
2-02 |
1-80 |
2-41 |
2-36 |
|
October . ■ . |
2-6() |
2-84 |
211 |
2-79 |
2-60 |
|
November . |
2-85 |
309 |
2-34 |
3-06 |
2-84 |
|
December . |
3-20 |
3-30 |
2-39 |
3-09 |
300 |
This matter of the nonperiodic fluctuation of rivers and lakes and its connection with variations of precipitation has been discussed by many writers in connection with oscillations of climate. .The most elaborate discussion of the subject is probably that by Dr. Edward Briickner.* In his work is given an elaborate discussion of data concerning the variations of rainfall and temperature, also of wind movement and other climatic factors, accompanied by diagrams exhibiting these facts in concise form. This volume has been preceded by x^amphlets upon the oscillations of water level in the Caspian, the Black, and the Baltic seas in their relation to weather and on the question as to what extent is the jweseut climate constant.
The principal fact taught by the examination of the fluctuations of the rivers and lakes of not only the arid regions, but of the United States as a whole, is that these are due to climatic forces, not only con¬ tinental, but even world- wide in extent. It is no uncommon thing for a river to sink to one-half of its average volume in any one year or double it the next. These matters, however, can not be regulated or affected, except perhai)s in a very slight degree, by any action on the part of mankind. There is an idea widely current that the removal of the forest cover at the head waters of a stream acts injuriously in many ways and causes greater fluctuations in the quantity discharged, especially in time of flood. This is a matter, however, exceedingly dif¬ ficult to i)rove on account of this enormous variation in volume which takes place in every stream, whether in a forested country or not, the fluctuation due to climatic changes being enormously greater than that wliich can be attributed in any way to the result of forest destruc¬ tion.
VARIATIONS IN PRECIPITATION.
The changes in the amount of rainfall and snowfall at various local¬ ities are by no means comi)arable among themselves, one locality showing a slight increase in any one year and another a decrease ; but,
• Klimaschwankungen seit 1,700 nebst Bemerkungen iiber die Kliruaschw.'inkuDgen der Diluvialzeit, Von Dr. Eduard Bruckner. Wien und Olmiitz, Ed. Hdlzel. 1890.
26
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
taking the averages of large numbers of observations, there are found to be, as before shown, certain general departures on one side or the other, one year being marked by an unusual amount of precipitation and another by deficiency. These averages of rainfall measurements do not agree as closely as might be expected with the statements of farmers as to droughts or good years, for they do not take into account the distribution of the rain by seasons; that is to say, there may beUn unusual drought at the critical season of the year accompanied by great crop losses, and yet, taking the year as a whole, the deficiency of rain¬ fall may not be especially notable. Therefore great reliance can not be placed upon the results of total annual rainfall measurements alone.
The attempt to connect the discharge of any one stream with the measurements of rainfall in the basin is unsatisfactory, unless the catch¬ ment area is unusually small and records of the rainfall have been kept at a large number of j)laces well distributed over this area. This is a matter almost impossible of achievemeut in the arid region, where the greater part of the available water supply comes from high mountain¬ ous areas almost if not quite uninhabitable. Until this apparently impossible condition is fulfilled, namely, the keeping of many rainfall records in each catchment area, it will be hopeless to attempt to con¬ nect the rainfall and river flow in any detailed manner.
In a general way the average of the rainfall measurements over sev¬ eral states begins to show a coincidence with the fluctuations of the streams, although in detail the matter seems confused. This is shown in Fig. 47, as previously mentioned, and might be brought out in con¬ nection with change of level in many of the streams and lakes. The matter is one, however, concerning which the data at present available are still too limited for satisfactory discussion.
The periodic oscillations of rainfall throughout the year are capa¬ ble of more satisfactory treatment than the fluctuations year by year, from the fact that there is a general agreement in stations near each other, changes in the distribution of rainfall by months being found to take place slowly as progress is made across the continent. A diagram therefore, prepared from along record at any one station in one of the smaller states of the West, is found to be applicable in the main fea¬ tures to the greater x^art if not the whole area; that is to say, if May is the month of maximum rainfall at any one jDoint it jirobably is for all localities in the state, while in the localities adjoining it is highly imob- able that the time of maximum rainfall will be either immediately before or after that of the given state.
Fig. 50 has been prepared to show the average distribution of pre¬ cipitation by months at a few stations in the western half of the United States. It brings out in sharp contrast the differences in the character of the rainfall on opposite sides of the arid region. On the Pacific coast summer droughts are the rule, while on the eastern side of the arid region the greater iiart of the rainfall is during summer. Between
NEWELL.]
MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL.
27
these two the gradual transition from one to the otlier is well marked in nearly every instance. This matter of the characteristic distribution of precipitation throughout the year has been systematically discussed by Gen. A. W. Greely in his report upon irrigation and water storage in the arid regions/ and also in a paper presented before the Jtational Geographic Society upon rainfall types of the United States.^ He l)oints out that there are several distinct and simple types of rainfall, each of which can be represented graphically by a curve with a single bend or inflection, the average monthly amount of precipitation increas-
Fig. 50. — Diagram of the distribution of the mean monthly precipitation at sixteen stations in
western United States.
ing steadily from a minimum to a maximum and then diminishing in unbroken progression. Each of these simple types of rainfall is shown to have some relation to the movement of winds from some one great body of water — the Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of California, the Gulf of Mexico, etc. Besides these simple curves are composite types, shown graphically by two inflections, there being in each a primary and a secondary minimum and maximum.
The diagram. Fig. 50, shows at least three of the simple types and several of the composite forms. In the cases of the portions of the dia-
'Fifty-first Congress, second session, House of Kepresentatives, Ex. Doc. No. 287, Washington, 1891. Report on the climatology of the arid regions of the United States with reference to irrigation. By Gen. A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army.
* The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. v, pp. 45-60. Bainfall ty{)es of the United States. Annual Keport, by Vice-President Greely.
28
WATEE SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
gram illustrating the distribution of i)recipitatiou at Fort Bidvrell and Sau Francisco a general curve might be sketched connecting the tops of the small columns. This would represent fairly well the Pacific type of rainfall, which is characterized by heavy precipitation during the winter and prolonged droughts in snmmer. In a similar way a curve drawn through the part of the diagram for Santa Fe would represent the Mexican type, which is notable for the very heavy precipitation in August. The third simple type is perhaps best shown on this diagram by the conditions at Jlorth Platte, Nebraska. This has been named the Missouri type, from the fact that it obtains throughout the watershed of the Missouri River and its principal tributaries. As shoAvu by the diagram, the rainfall during the winter is very light, the greatest amount of precipitation being in late spring and early summer.
SUBSURFACE WATERS.
The water obtained from rocks beneath the general surface of the country, although relatively small in amount when compared with that from streams, has great importance, from the fact that dependence must necessarily be placed uijon this in many localities where running water can not be had. Not only is agriculture benefited indirectly by water from wells convenient for household use and stock purposes, but in many instances a supply sufficiently great for irrigation in a small way has been obtained. Water for irrigation is lifted from the wells gen¬ erally by means of windmills or by machinery driven by steam or horse¬ power. In some localities the structure of the rocks is such that water rises to the surface and overflows, artesian wells being obtained by drilling to depths ranging from a hundred to a thousand feet or more.
The total number of artesian Avells in the western part of the United States in 1890 Avas 8,097, as ascertained by the census of that year. These were found in North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, and the states and territories to the west of these to the Pacific coast. Of this number, 3,930 were employed to a greater or less extent in irrigation, watering 51,896 acres, or 1.43 per cent of the total area irrigated. The residue of the Avells Avere undoubtedly of benefit to agri¬ culture to some extent^ their principal value, hoAvever, being in the fact that they furnished supplies for municipal and domestic purposes, and also for cattle when the wells are in the vicinity of grazing lands.
No statistics have been obtained concerning the ordinary Avells from which water is piimped or drawn by various means, but there is found in nearly every locality Avater saturating i)orous rocks near the surface in all places except on desert areas. On the Great Plains, for example, in Avestern Nebraska and Kansas, it is sometimes necessary to go to depths of from 100 to 300 feet or more before water-bearing strata are reached, but throughout the arid region as a rule wells are successfully dug to a less depth. The widespread occurrence of water in pervious layers of the earth’s crust, and sometimes in such quantities as to ap-
NEWELL.]
GROUND WATERS.
29
peai almost inexhaustible, has given rise to the notion that it flows in great channels very much as do the rivers of the surface, but covered from sight by rocks and soils. There are a few instances where under¬ ground watercourses actually occur, but these are extremely rare and are extraordinary in their nature, being found only in the great lime¬ stone deposits or among the lava flows of recently extinct volcanic regions.
In a majority of cases subsurface water occurs merely as moisture saturating the rocks. If these are unconsolidated and porous the quantity of water contained in the interstices is in the aggregate very large, while in the case of the hard compact granites or slate the pro¬ portion is extremely small. That all rocks which form the crust of the earth contain a certain amount of water can usually be shown by dry¬ ing any of them and noting the loss in weight. The sands and gravels washed down from adjacent heights and filling depressions are partic¬ ularly well adapted to hold moisture, and it is from these; as is well known, that the greatest quantities of water are obtained.
The behavior of the waters in these sands is still a matter of inquiry, and is not clearly understood. For instance, one leading question is : Are these stationary, or do they flow freely from place to place? It is probable that to a certain degree both of these conditions are found in nature. In a small valley entirely inclosed the water accumulates in the sands until they are saturated and the moisture approaching the surface of the soil begins to be evaporated. The matter then ad¬ justs itself until a balance is reached between the amount which flows in and that which is evaporated, the level of water rising until the loss is equal to the inflow. If a well be made in this sand basin and the water drawn upon, the level of moisture in the immediate vicinity of the well is immediately lowered. The influence extends only with great slowness towards the edge of the basin, however, the water level not as a whole falling at once, as would be the case in drawing from a large open body, the place of the water removed from the center being slowly occupied by a gradual ])rogression of moisture from the sides.
Instead of a small basin, if one of indefinite size be considered, there is seen a condition of things similar to that which takes place in a broad extent of country. The moisture at the lower limit of a large plain escaping either in springs or by evaporation is gradually replaced by the slowly progressing water, which percolates with a rate varying with the fineness of the rock or sand layer. The amount of water which can be taken from underground sources is limited not so much by the total quantity in the area, as by the rate at which it can flow through these sands or gravels, and after the first wells have drawn upon the supply already stored in the immediate vicinity the amount which can be taken afterwards is governed by the speed with which the moisture can progress to the place from ever-widening limits. In lost river basins and on low lands in the vicinity of irrigated areas the
30
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
amount and behavior of this subsurface water becomes a factor of great local importance.
Popular interest, especially in the subhumid regions, has been aroused concerning subsurface or ground waters, and statements as to their distribution, quantity, and availability, especially for irrigation, have been eagerly received. The somewhat misleading and indefinite term “underflow’’ has been applied to these waters, and many persons awakening for the first time to a realization of their iDresence have re¬ ceived exaggerated impressions or have magnified the importance of phenomena previously known to engineers and geologists. Extrava¬ gant reports have been made as to the results of rude experiments, and many persons have been induced to believe that it was practicable to irrigate large portions of the subhumid region by means of the ground waters conducted to the surface of the gently sloping plains through long tunnels or open channels. Acting on this belief, thou¬ sands or even hundreds of thousands of dollars were expended, mainly in the years 1890 and 1891, in the construction of such projects, princi¬ pally along or in the valleys of the Platte and Arkansas rivers. So far as can be ascertained by examination and measurement none of these projects can be said to be successful, although in a number of cases small quantities of water are obtained from the long, deep chan¬ nels which penetrate the pervious beds of sand and gravel.
In each of the instances of these so-called underflow canals the level of the ground water, or what is known to engineers as the water table, is lowered in the immediate vicinity of the cut or excavation, and the upper part of the pervious beds being drained, a new slope of the water table is found, this being adjusted to the altered conditions. The progress of the water down this new slope is, so far as can be ascer¬ tained, practically constant, except as modified ’by local rains and changes of temperature. The quantity of water actually obtained, although large in one sense, as, for example, when compared with that from an ordinary well or the amount utilized for domestic supply, is almost insignificant with reference to the irrigation of any considerable body of land. The projectors of these irrigating schemes often failed to appreciate not only the fact that ground waters must in their very nature move slowly, but also that even in comparatively humid coun¬ tries large volumes of water are necessary to conduct irrigation on an extended scale.
COST AND VALUE OF WATER SUPPLY.
The average first cost of water for irrigation throughout western United States has been ascertained to be at the rate of $8-15 per acre, while its value, wherever the rights can be transferred without the land, is $26. Applying these figures to the total acreage as ascertained by the last census, the total first cost of irrigating the lauds from which crops were obtained in 1889 was $29,611,000, and the total value of the
NEWELL.]
VALUE OF FLOWING WATER.
31
water rights was $94,412,000, the increase of value being $04,801,000, or 218*84 i)er cent of the investment. This latter sum may be taken as representing the value of the supply utilized. The average annual ex¬ pense of maintaining the water supply was $1*07 per acre, or an aggre¬ gate of $3,794,000, this being the amount expended in keeping the canals and ditches in repair and free from sediment.
The estimated first cost of the irrigated lands from which crops were obtained in 1880 was $77,490,000, and their present value, including improvements, $296,850,000, showing an increased value of $219,360,000, or 283*08 per cent of the investment in the land, not taking into consid¬ eration the water. The average value of the crops raised was $14.89 per acre, or a total of $53,057,000. These figures have been introduced to exhibit the cost and value of irrigation in the arid regions. TJie value of the unutilized water supply can scarcely be estimated until more accurate information is obtained concerning the total amount of water and the acreage that it can be made to cover. By making cer¬ tain assumptions, however, a rough estimate can be arrived at.
Taking the average first cost of water at $8*15 per acre and its present value at $26 per acre, the difference, $17*85, may be assumed as the value of the water as it flows in the stream. If 1 cubic foot per second will water 100 acres, then the value of 1 second-foot is $1,785. Taking the figures given on page 10, as to the total quantity of water i)robably available, viz, 360,000 second-feet, the total value of this water is $642,600,000. These figures obviously have no claim to accuracy, but merely indicate that, calculated on the most conservative basis, the water sui^ply of the arid country must be ranked among the most im¬ portant of its undeveloped mineral resources.
PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE BASINS.
In order to enter upon a detailed discussion of the water supply of the arid region it is necessary to consider the different portions in turn, and for this purpose the best method of grouping the facts is by nat¬ ural divisions, viz, by drainage basins. The political divisions into states and counties unfortunately do not coincide with lines of drain¬ age, except in a few instances, so that the discussion of water supply according to these arbitrary lines is less satisfactory than by the way first mentioned. The small map (Fig. 51) shows the relative location and area of the larger drainage basins of the west and their position with reference to the states and territories, the size of these in square miles being shown in the accompanying table, page 33. According to this table the total area of the part of the United States west of the 100th meridian is 1,380,175 square miles, not including thirty-six coun¬ ties in the western portion of Oregon and Washington, the aggregate area of these, including water surface, being 61,840 square miles. Add¬ ing this amount, the total area of the land and water surface west of the 100th meridian is 1,442,015 square miles. The thirty-six western
32
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
counties of Oregon and Washington above mentioned have been de¬ ducted because of the fact that in a study of water supply and irrig’a- tion it has been found convenient to omit from consideration these comparatively well-watered areas. The 1,380,175 square miles above mentioned include the area of several large lakes, the principal of these
being in Utah, California, and Montana. The aggregate area of these water surfaces is 8,215 square miles, which being deducted gives the total area of land surface used on page 33.^
The order usually adopted is that by which the head waters are first considered and then the tributaries in succession. The large drainage
• The areas of States and counties are those giv'en by Henry Gannett, geograplier of the Eleventh Census, in census bulletin No. 23, January 21, 1891.
Area in square miles of principal drainage basins by slates.
NEWELL.]
AREA OF DRAINAGE BASINS.
33
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34
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
basins in this and preceding reports are taken in this general order wherever applicable, and from the east toward the west, as shown in the table. In this report the drainage basin of the Missouri, Yel¬ lowstone and Platte will be described.
MISSOURI RIVER BASIN.
LOCATION AND AREA.
The Missouri basin, as the term is used in reports concerning the arid region, usually includes the area tributary to the river of that name above the junction of the Yellowstone. As a matter of fact, the drainage basins of the Yellowstone, Little Missouri, Cheyenne, Platte, and other rivers form parts of the great basin of the Missouri river, but since each of these streams flows nearly to or beyond the limits of the arid region before uniting their waters in this great drainage system, it is more convenient to consider them as independent basins and at the same time to apply the name “Missouri” to the head water catchment area of that stream.
The total area of this basin is 95,093 square miles, of which 13,315 square miles, or 14 per cent, is within the Dominion of Canada, leaving 81,778 square miles, all in the state of Montana, with the exception of a few square miles in the Yellowstone National park. In this discus¬ sion of the water supply and the condition of irrigation reference is made oidy to the portion of the basin in Montana, few facts being avail¬ able concerning the xiart in Canada. The boundaries of Montana have been laid out in such a manner llhat they include not only the greater part of the Missouri basin, but also in the southeast a xiortion of the Yellowstone basin, and on the west a large part of Clarke fork of the Columbia. The state line west of the Yellowstone National park fol¬ lows for a xiortion of its course the rim of the basin, but with this single excexition it has been located with reference to arbitrary lines rather than with regard to natural divisions.
The drainage basin of the Missouri, as shown by PI. cviii, is bounded on the west and southwest by the main range of the Eocky mountains, which forms the continental divide, separating the Avaters of the Mis¬ souri from those of the Columbia. On the southwest, where this divide forms the state line between Montana and Idaho, it separates the basin from the head waters of Snake river, or, as it was formerly known, Lewis fork of the Columbia. Farther to the north, beyond the point whei’e the Bitterroot mountains sexiarate from the Kockies, these latter form the watershed between the Missouri and Clarke fork of the Columbia. Thus the Missouri basin is bounded on the south by the Yellowstone, a xiart of which is in Montana, on the southwest by the Snake basin in the state of Idaho, and on the west by Clarke fork in Montana.
NI-.WELL.l
AREA OF MISSOURI BASIN.
35
ELEVATION AND TOPOGRAPHY.
The basin as a whole slopes toward the north and east, the highest ground, as shown by PI. cviii, being in the southwestern corner and along the western edge. The waters How, therefore, in a general northerly and easterly course, leaving the basin not far from the northeastern corner. The rim of the basin is sharply defined in the higher portion, but in the eastern half, Avhere the divides are low and rolling, the watershed is formed by prairie country, and therefore must be arbitra¬ rily designated.
By means of the contours given on PI. cviii an estiuiate has been pre¬ pared of the area of the basin at various elevations. From an inspec¬ tion of this table, given below, it is apparent that over one-half of the basin is at an elevation below 4,000 feet. In fact, the altitude is far less than it is popularly supposed to be. .
Square miles.
Total area in Montana . 81, 178
Area under 2,000 feet . . . 618
Area from 2,000 to 3,000 feet . 26, 068
Area from 3,000 to 4,000 feet . 22, 317
Area from 4,000 to 5,000 feet . 13, 314
Area from 5,000 to 7,000 feet . 13, 218
Area over 7,000 feet . . . 6, 243
LAND CLASSIFICATION.
The small map on PI. cviii shows not only the general elevation of va¬ rious parts of the basin, but, by means of the color, the general char¬ acter of the lands within this area. Three general divisions have been made based upon the size or kind of the vegetation as determined by climate and altitude. The darkest shade indicates in a broad way the relative location of the forests or timber laud, while the lighter green shows the area covered to a greater or less extent by scattered trees, suitable for firewood, occasionally furnishing material for pui’iioses of fencing. The remainder of the basin, colored a light brown, supports a scanty vegetation, and, for the most part, may be considered as pas¬ ture laud, including under this designation vast tracts whose soil is arable, and which, with an abundant water supply, would produce large crops.
Dividing the total area of the Missouri basin in Montana, viz, 81,728 square miles, into these three classes, it has been found that there are in arable or pasture land, apiiroximately, 04,398 square miles, in laud more or less covered with scattering firewood 10,040 square miles, leav¬ ing for the timbered land 0,740 square miles. These designations are largely arbitrary, for there is, unquestionably, good pasturage within the areas designated as being covered with timber or firewood, and, on the other hand, there are trees and shrubs of value to the farmer scat-
36
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
tered along all of the principal streams in the eastern end of the State. There is little, if any, agricultural laud within the areas covered in whole or i)art by trees, most of this being rough broken land or high mountains.
The arable and pasture lauds shown on the map include the locali¬ ties where agriculture is carried on, or wliere the soil is such that it could be developed. Unfortunately, however, as shown by the char¬ acter of the vegetation, the rainfall is deficient and farming can not be successful Avithout the artificial application of Avater. It has been found that in the census year ending May 31, 1890, crops were raised by irri¬ gation upon 234,030 acres, or 365*7 square miles. This is only 0*57 per cent of the total area designated above as arable or pasture lauds. The localities at which irrigation was carried on in the census year are shown by the dark spots on the map, PI. cviii.
Besides the irrigated portions of the arable or pa'sture lands, there are along the rivers many thousands of acres which by a careful utiliza¬ tion of the water supply can be brought under cultiAmtiou. The extent to which agriculture can be developed is, however, dependent wholly upon the thoroughness of the conservation of the flood waters and upon the degree to which the large rivers are utilized. The area irrigable, while governed somewhat by the topography, is controlled by the manner in which the water supply is employed. It is not possible, there¬ fore, to make any rigid distinction between the irrigable lands and the arable or jAasture lands, but on the small map the attempt is made' to show by a darker shade the relative area and location of the lauds which, under the best circumstances, can possibly be reclaimed by irri¬ gation. The area thus colored aggregates in round numbers 1,000,000 acres, or 1,562 square miles.
EXTENT OF IRRIGATION.
The acreage irrigated in the Missoui’i basin, as above stated, aggre¬ gated 234,036 acres. This includes chiefly the area from which crops were obtained during the census year. The areas colored dark green on the small map are found mainly in the Avestern and southern part of the basin near the points where the smaller tributaries issue from the mountains and flow out into the first open valleys. Agriculture by means of irrigation has already developed to such an extent that all of the streams Avhich can be readily diverted, by one or two farmers or a number of neighbors acting in partnership, have been utilized nearly to their full extent during the summer season, and there remains little water unappropriated except that which flows during the spring floods.
While on the one hand the demand for water has already exceeded the suiAply along the upiier valleys of the Missouri, further doAAm, on the main river, there is a large amount floAving at all times of the year. Unfortunately, however, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to
NEWELL.]
IRRIGATION IN MISSOURI BASIN.
37
bring this water out iipou the vast extent of arable land, owing to the steepness of the banks and the comparatively slight fall of the stream. There is thus a striking contrast between the condition of affairs in the eastern and western ends of the basin. In the latter locality are small streams with steep slopes flowing through comparatively narrow val¬ leys, the water being widely distributed in the innumerable creeks, while in eastern Montana the water supply is all concentrated in the main rivers and the arable lands lie in great blocks embracing thou¬ sands of square miles.
The population is located mainly in the southwestern portion of the basin in the valleys among the mountains. This is due to the fact that the principal industry is mining, carried on in the canyons or gulches and among the crystalline rocks which contain the precious metals. If, however, the only industry were agriculture, this i)ortion of the basin would still be the most prosperous and thickly settled, from the fact that the small streams in the mountains are widely distributed and the waters can be readily brought under control by the efforts of individu¬ als or of companies. There is one peculiarity of the toi)ography of this j)art of the basin which should be mentioned, namely, the bench lands which are found in each valley between the foothills and the narrow bottoms along the streams. These bench lands, although sometimes having gravel upon the surface, are usually very fertile, and as a rule surpass in excellence the lower lands along the bottoms of the valleys. They are usually cut by deep, narrow ravines, or coulees, as they are locally known, formed by the action of tributaries entering the main stream.
These bench lands are remnants of the beds deposited in former times from lake waters before the rivers had cut their present outlets. The streams leaving each valley i^ass through narrow canyons eroded by the flowing waters. Before these canyons were cut, the waters being held back, the material washed from the mountain was depos¬ ited, partially filling the deep basins. Gradually, however, the escap¬ ing water wore down the outlets until the bottoms of these lakes were laid bare, and continuing its downward course each stream cut trenches in the lake bottoms, in which the streams now flow. Thus each impor¬ tant stream in the western end of the basin flows at some distance below the general level of the bench lands, and its waters can be diverted with ease only upon the narrow flood plain. The principal inoblem presented to the irrigation engineer in this part of Montana is that of taking the water fi-om the larger streams out upon these rich lauds. The matter is complicated by the fact that they are deeply cut by the coulees traversing them at short distances, and also by the condition of development of irrigation, viz, the fact that many of the imiirovements. made at present stand in the way of more comprehen¬ sive schemes.
38
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
WATER MEASUREMENTS.
The localities at which stream measurements have been made by this survey and the results obtained have been described in previous annual rei)orts of the irrigation survey.^ Some additional data have been obtained since the preparation of the last report and are i)resented hereAvith, together with a brief resume of the materials available for study of the fluctuations of water supply.
The three rivers, the Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson, which unite to form the Missouri, hai^e been measured at different times by the Geological Survey and by the Missouri Eiver Commission. Continuous records of discharge have been computed for the Gallatin above Gal¬ latin valley, and for the Madison near Red Bluffy while in the Jefferson basin Bedrock creek alone has been observed for a series of months. A few measurements haA’e been made on the Jefferson near Willow creek, that on August 19, 1889, giving a discharge of 202 second-feet, and on October 15, 1889, near Three Forks, 333 second-feet. Siiigle measurements have also been made of some of the streams tributary to the Jefferson, viz, Ruby creek, Blacktail Deer creek, also Beaver¬ head and Bighole rivers, as noted in the following pages.
Several measurements have been made of the Madison near its mouth, that on August 17, 1889, at Blacks giving a discharge of 1,104 second-feet, and that of October 14, 1889, at Three Forks 1,191 second- feet. Considerable difficulty has been found in obtaining the dis¬ charges of the three rivers near their junction, on account of the fact that they divide into a number ef channels and the height of the water in one stream aflects the others for a considerable distance above.
Below the point at AA'hich the Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson rivers unite a number of measurements have been made, showing that the discharge, as obtained by gaugings,has varied from about 2,500 second- feet up to over 8,500 second-feet. The seasonal fluctuations undoubt¬ edly cause a Amriation both beloAA- and above these flgures.
Besides the gauging stations of the Geological Suiwey at Toston, Canyon Ferry and Craig, described in former reports, records of the height of the water have been kept by the Missouri Rwer Commission at a number of places, as shown by the following list, which includes all knoAvn data.
At Gallaher’s Ferry, about 200 j^ards aboA^e the mouth of the Gal¬ latin rwer, the height of the rwer has been recorded from August to November, 1890l
At Gallatin, Montana, records of river height have been kept from July to December, 1 890. A measurement made at this point on August 0, 1890, gave a discharge of 2,G40 second-feet. (In the Twelth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 237, this is erroneously given as 2,400 second-feet.)
' United States Geological Survey, Eleventh Ann. Kept., pt. 2, 1889-’90, AVashington, 1891, pp. 38-43, 93-94, 107 ; also Twelfth Aun. Kept., pt. 2, 1890-91, pp. 230-238, 346-347.
NEWELL.]
GAUGING STATIONS ALONG MISSOURI.
39
At Toston, about 30 miles below Three Forks, the Geological Survey made six measurements from April 8 to July 26, 1890, the results being shown on page 42 of the second annual report on irrigation. The Mis¬ souri Eiver Commission kept records of height from August 10, 1890, to February 28, 1891. The elevation of low water of 1890 at this place was about 3,879 feet.
At Townsend, 43 miles more or less below Three Forks, a permanent gauge was established October 1, 1891, by the Missouri Eiver Com¬ mission.
At Canyon Ferry, about 18 miles from Helena, gaugings were made by the Geological Survey, giving the discharge for September, October, and November, 1889. A measurement made on September 18, 1890, by the Missouri Eiver Commission near Canyon Ferry gave a discharge of 2,682 second-feet. The elevation of low water was in 1890 approxi¬ mately 3,629 feet.
At French Bar, 71 miles below Three Forks, the discharge, as measured by T. P. Eoberts on July 31, 1872, was 10,000 second-feet.
At Stubbs Ferry, which is given as being 73 miles from Three Forks a gauging was made in 1882 by the Missouri Eiver Commission, show¬ ing a discharge of 3,770 second-feet. The records of river height have been kept from July, 1890, to January 17, 1891.
At Craig, a locality above the mouth of the Dearborn river, a gaug- ing'station was established by the Geological Survey and continued iu operation through 1891. The elevation of low water of 1890, as deter¬ mined by levelings made by the Missouri Eiver Commission, was about 3,629 feet.
At Great Falls, Montana, records of river height were kept from September to December, 1890, by the Missouri Eiver Commission, and possibly have been continued by the water-power company at that place.
At Fort Benton gaugings have been kept with more or less regular¬ ity from 1873 to 1876 and from 1881 to 1890. In August of this latter year a permanent station was established, taking as zero the low water of 1889. The daily gauge height from 1873 to 1876 has been published in lithographed form by Prof. Thomas Eussell, of the Weather Bureau.^
PRECIPITATION.
Measurements of the amount of precipitation have been made at a number of points within this basin by the Signal Service of the U. S. Army, some of the records being continued for over fifteen years. The results of these measurements show that the rainfall, as measured- at the various stations, varies from 10 to 20 inches, the average being about 15 inches, the greater part occurring in the months of May and June. The following list gives the names and location of the more
• Stages of the Mississippi and of its principal tributaries, 1860 to 1889, pt. 2, pp. 217-220.
40
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
important of these stations, with the length of time during which ob¬ servations were made, and the mean annual rainfall as derived from records furnished by th*e Signal Service.
|
Locality. |
Length of record. |
Depth of rainfall. |
|
Years. 15 |
Inches. 19-6 16-0 |
|
|
9 |
||
|
11 |
14*3 |
|
|
8 |
14*4 |
|
|
2 |
||
|
Fort Sbaw, on Sun river . |
17 |
10-2 |
|
Fort Benton, mouth of Teton river . |
16 |
13-3 |
|
9 |
15*0 |
|
|
7 |
16-6 |
|
|
1 |
6-7 |
|
|
7 |
10-5 |
|
|
23 |
12-3 |
|
FORT ELLIS. Near Bozeman, Mont. Elevation, 4,878 feet.
These localities are mainly in the valleys or on the plains, and there¬ fore the results of the measurements do not represent the rainfall and snowfall upon the high mountains, which undoubtedly is considerably
greater. It is safe to assume that the precipitation upon the summits is at least from 20 to 30 inches, and upon the valley lands of the west¬ ern xmrt of the Missouri basin at from 15 to 20 inches. In the east¬ ern end of the basin, however, as shown by the measurements at Poplar river and Fort Buford, the rainfall rarely amounts to over 15 ^ inches, ranging usually from 10 to 12 inches in depth.
5 The amount of rain falling in any I one year may vary widely from the I averages given in this statement, which nevertheless serve to indi¬ cate in a general way the distribu¬ tion of precipitation over the basin. The variation from year to year is exceedingly irregular, but compar¬ ing one year with another, it ap¬ pears from the records that there was a general decrease during the latter part of the decade, the depth of rainfall in 1889 and 1890 being at most stations below the average.
The distribution of the preciiiitation by months is shown graphically on Fig. 52, the results at four stations having the longest record being selected. These averages, although obtained from widely separated
FORT SHAW.
On Sun river, Mont. Elevation, 3,550 feet.
FORT BENTON.
On Missouri river. Elevation, 2,730 feet.
FORT BUFORD.
At junction of Mis¬ souri and Yellow¬ stone rivers. Elevation, 1,930 feet.
|
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Ttino |
July Aug. Sept. 1 Oct. 1 Nov. Dec. |
|
i sem. • |
AIM |
|
2IN. I |
2iH |
|
Sllil |
lllllS |
|
^IN. |
4IN. |
|
*»*» |
2IN |
|
liilll |
IlllliA |
|
ATM. |
AIN |
|
2m. 1 1 |
1 2IK |
|
D.illl |
lllllla |
|
AIN. |
AIN |
|
2IM. ■ |
1 2lit |
|
IIiLlI |
Fig. 52.— Diagram of mean monthly rainfall at four stations in the Missouri basin.
NEWELL.]
MONTHLY RAINFALL IN MISSOURI BASIN.
41
localities, have a similar appearance in that the greatest precipitation is in the month of May, followed by a slight decrease in June. During the remaining months of the year, however, there is a decided range in the proj)ortion of rain falling, in the case of Fort Benton, for example, there being a gradual decrease to the end of the year, while at other stations there is great irregularity.
The distribution of rain throughout the year is shown by the follow¬ ing table, which gives the average precipitation per month as obtained from the stations named on page 40, and also gives the percentage of the amount for the year :
|
Inchea. |
Per cent. |
|
|
0-81 |
6-1 |
|
|
U-65 |
4*9 6*1 |
|
|
0-82 |
||
|
April . |
1-02 |
7-7 |
|
May . |
2-51 |
18-8 |
|
2-10 |
15-7 |
|
|
July . |
1-29 |
• 9-7 |
|
1-03 |
7-7 |
|
|
September . |
1-03 |
7-7 |
|
October . . . |
0-85 |
6-4 |
|
^cveiuber . |
0-58 |
4-3 |
|
December . ! . |
0-66 |
4-9 |
|
Total . |
13-35 |
100-0 |
This peculiar distribution of the rainfall is in itself favorable to agri¬ culture, for, taking the months of May, June, and July as the principal part of the growing season, it appears that in an ordinary year over one-third of the rain falls during these months, and thus, although the rainfall is as a whole deficient, yet what there is comes at the time when it will do the most good.
With this brief summary of the principal facts concerning the basin as a whole, a more detailed description of the water supply in each sub- basin is given in the following pages, taking these in order from the head waters down, beginning with the Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson, and preserving in general the geographic order.
GALLATIN RIVER.
The Gallatin river rises in the high mountains in the northwestern corner of the Yellowstone National park and in the ranges north of this. The river flows in a general northerly course through a succession of narrow valleys and canyons for a distance of about 50 miles from its head waters, finally entering the Gallatin valley, one of the finest agri¬ cultural areas in Montana, or even in any of the western states. At the lower end of this valley the stream receives the waters of the East Gallatin, which drains the short range of the same name. The small tributaries coming from these mountains unite near the base and flow in a general northwesterly direction along the eastern side of the Gal¬ latin valley. At a distance of about 10 miles below the mouth of the East Gallatin the main stream enters the Missouri.
42
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
The water supply of the Gallatiu valley is peculiarly favorable to irrigation, and this, with the rich soil and temperate climate, has ren¬ dered possible a high state of agricultural development. On the east¬ ern side of the valley is Bozeman, and a number of smaller towns are scattered about. The small streams coming in from the east and south have enabled irrigators to bring under cultivation large areas of crops at moderate expenditure of labor, and as these convenient sources of supply have been utilized in turn and population increased, they have rendered possible the construction of large systems of irrigation deriv¬ ing water from the principal river, the West Gallatin. Thus by the distribution of small streams irrigation has grown rapidly and without interfering greatly with the thorough utilization of the magnificent water supply.
As has been previously stated, the amount of water entering the Gal¬ latin valley by means of the main stream has been measured at a sta¬ tion below the mouth of Spanish creek near where the river leaves the canyon. The total area drained is 850 square miles, most of this being high, steep, mountain areas heavily covered with timber. The run-off, therefore, is unusually large, being from 13 to 14 inches in dei)th over the whole basin; that is to say, if the water flowing from this drainage area during one year were put back upon a plain of the same size it would cover it to the depth of 13 or 14 inches. The average rainfall is not known, but probably can not be much less than 30 inches. If this be the case the run-off represents nearly one-half of the precipitation upon the catchment area.
The discharge of the stream has varied from 320 to 6,800 second-feet) the average for three years being over 950 second-feet. This is equiva¬ lent to an average discharge of 1T2 second-foot for each square mile drained, the amount varying at different times of the year from about four-tenths of a second-foot up to 8 second-feet per square mile. This rate of run-off is probably greater than that from the East Gallatin range, from the fact that the topography in the latter case is less favorable to rapid discharge of the precipitation.
In Fig. 53 is given the daily discharge of the West Gallatin river at the gauging station previously mentioned from May, 1891, to the middle of July, 1892, with the exception of the month of April, 1892. As will be seen by the inspection of the diagram, the flood discharge of 1892 was far greater than that of 1891, this latter being represented by the lighter line. The diagram is not sufficiently high to show the maximum point, 6,800 second-feet, reached in June, 1892. Comparison should be made with the diagram on PI. lx, in the Twelfth Annual Eeport, giving the discharge at this station from 1889 to 1891.’ On this plate the dis¬ charge for 1891 represented by a dotted line, is seen to be somewhat less than the discharge for 1890, this latter, however, being decidedly
> U. S. Geol. Survey, Twelfth Ami. Kept., pt. 2, Irrigation, p. 228.
NEWELL.]
DISCHARGE OF GALLATIN RIVER.
43
lower than the quantity shown on Fig. 53. This diftereuce is best ex¬ hibited by the table of mean monthly and annual discharge shown on page 98, where the mean annual discharges for 1890, 1891, and 1892 are respectively 871, 880, and 1,123 second-feet. The rapid ductuatioiis shown on the diagram as taking place during time of high water are undoubtedly due largely to changes of temiierature.
Taking the mean annual discharge of the West (lallatin as 950 sec¬ ond-feet, this, with a water duty of 100 acres to the second-foot, should irrigate 95,000 acres. It would be necessary, however, to store a large part of this water in order to make it available. By complete systems of storage and careful use of the water this duty could be somewhat
4000
w
a
V
3000
(jq
o
a
2000*?'
1000
Fig. 53. — Diagram of daily discharge of West Gallatin river below Spanish creek, Mont., 1891-’92.
increased, rendering it possible to cover at least 100,000 acres, an amount which would probably embrace the greater part of the irrigable land along the stream.
The Gallatin valley, as well as the great part of the catchment area of the river, is included within Gallatin county, Montana, the lines of this county extending in a westerly direction to the Jefferson river and thus including the valleys at the mouth of Madison river and Willow creek. The statistics of the Eleventh census show that in this county there were 434 irrigated farms, upon which 40,901 acres of crops were raised, the average size of the irrigated holding being thus 108 acres. These farms were mainly along the eastern edge of the Gallatin valley in the vicinity of Bozeman and northwesterly from this locality along the foothills.
The altitude of Gallatin valley may be taken in round numbers as
44
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level. At Bozeman, on its eastern side, the railroad track is at an elevation of 4,754 feet, while at Gal¬ latin, at the lower end of the valley near the Missouri river, the ele¬ vation of the track is 4,032 feet. The fall is thus sufficiently great at all points to render possible the diversion of water from the streams upon nearly all of the bench lands, so that there are few limitations of this kind to the development of irrigation systems.
The water from the small streams which make nj) the East Gallatia has been appropriated and utilized by farmers, the only exception being in the case of waters during the spring floods. Toward the end of Slimmer the streams become very small and there is not a sufficient supply to fill the demands made upon them. During the drought of 1889 and 1890 there was not sufficient water to irrigate all of the land under cultivation, and the necessity of storing some of the surplus water of spring became more than ever ajiparent. One or two enter¬ prises of this character have been begun, but as yet have not come into active operation. There have been many complaints of injustice on the part of various individuals claiming water from the small streams, some of the older settlers asserting that they have been deprived of what was rightfully theirs, and, on the other hand, many of the later comers assert that the waters have not been fairly divided.
The principal irrigating streams, taken in order from the West Gal¬ latin easterly around the valley, are given below, together with the average amount of water flowing during the irrigating season as esti¬ mated by a resident of Bozeman :
Secoud-feet.
Wilsou creek . 16
Bear creek . 20
Cottonwood creek . ' . 30
Middle creek . 50
Bozeman creek . 24
Reservation creek . 24
Second-feet.
Bridger creek . 30
Little CottoDAvood creek . 12
Spring creek . 20
Reese creek . 20
Dry creek . 16
Bozeman, Reservation, and Bridger creeks unite to form the East Gallatin river. The streams below this, namely. Little Cottonwood, Spring, Reese, and Dry, seldom reach the river except during the spring floods. The water supply from the streams named above, to¬ gether with that taken from the West Gallatin river, aggregates 522 second-feet, assuming that the amount contributed by the canals from this latter river is as follows: West Gallatin and Bozeman canal, 100 second-feet; Excelsior canal, 100 second-feet, and Middle Creek ditch, 00 second- feet.
l!7ear the edges of the valley, among the foothills, a few crops can occasionally be raised without irrigation. For example, winter wheat in years of abundant snowfall yields largely. Also on the low grounds along the river, where the bill is slight, are areas where irrigation is not essential, but these are comparatively small, and it may be said
f
>
> •
.* ■■
.
%
t •
I
.* >
i
f ..
'4
T
U.S.GEOLOCaCAL SURV^EY.
Ono.S TIarru:^;SorL9 LithPVula
114.0
113°
112 <
111°
110°
30(.
300 <
113°
112 <
111°
110°
THIRTEENTH ANNUAL REP. PL,.CVni.
1070
106°
105®
108°
104°
09°
108°
107°
106°
105°
NEWELL.]
IRRIGATION IN GALLATIN VALLEY.
45
that the value of the lands of the valley rests immediately upon the amount of water supply and the thoroughness with which this is utilized.
'While there has been a considerable development of agriculture by means of the waters of the smaller streams, the greatest increase of area tilled since the census year comes through the construction and extension of a few large canals taking water from the West Gallatin river. These head in or near the mouth of the canyon and take the water out upon both sides of the river, covering on the west side at least a large portion of the bench lands. There are two canals on the east side, the Bozeman and West Gallatin canal and the Excelsior, these running toward the northeast in the direction of Bozeman and approximately parallel to each other. The latter was built by an asso¬ ciation of farmers in the attemi)t to secure water at less rates than those offered by the first-named company.
The canal of the West Gallatin Irrigation Company heads on the west side of the river a little over 3 miles above Salesville, and after follow¬ ing the stream for several miles turns off to the west, passing through a ridge or spur by means of a tunnel and then out upon the bench lands lying between the Gallatin and Madison rivers. The surface is greati/ eroded by small streams which flow in spring from the moun¬ tains, and many of these gulches are crossed by flumes. The total length of this canal as completed during 1891 was 23 miles, and the average bottom width 14 feet. It can be made to cover approximately (30,000 acres, the greater part if not all of which is arable.
Besides the three large canals mentioned above there are many ditches taking water from both sides of the stream and carrying it out upon the land in the lower end of the valley and over toward Three Forks. Some of the best farms, if not the finest in the whole state, are in this vicinity, and, as shown by the irrigators, the crops which have been produced can not be excelled by any in Montana for quantity as well as quality.
Settlement began in the Gallatin valley, according to statement of a correspondent, in 1863, crops of grain and vegetables being raised in the following year. Since that time there has been a steady increase year by year in the acreage under cultivation by irrigation, so that now a great part of the valley is covered by a network of ditches. Irri¬ gation is regarded by all as indispensable, although as previously stated, there are a few farms lying near the mountains where it is apparent that the late spring and early summer rains fall more copi¬ ously and later in the season than they do upon the lower lands, and it is here that the winter wheat can be relied upon with a reasonable degree of confidence to produce a remunerative crop. By irrigation, however, the yield could be greatly increased, and it is only because this is impracticable that the so-called dry farming is attempted.
On the lower, moist grounds along the rivers or near the swamps in
46
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
the valley large crops have been raised from the time of the settlement of the valley without the soil apparently losing its fertility, but, unfor¬ tunately, the alkaline salts tend to develop in such localities, destroy¬ ing the value of the land unless great care is used to neutralize the effect of these minerals. It is stated that land in this valley has been producing wheat, oats, and barley for over twenty years without signs of deterioration, and now produces from 35 to 45 bushels of wheat fter acre without artificial fertilizers.
Until the drought of 1889 the farmers deemed it sufficient to provide irrigation for only a small ijortion of their farms, relying upon seepage to furnish sufficient moisture for other parts. The experience of that year, however, showed the necessity of having a reserve siipj^ly of water and of providing ditches to use in time of unusual drought. Without an ample supply and a thorough system of distributing the amount available irrigation, in the words of one who has had experi¬ ence, “ becomes a constant source of trouble and worry. There is more litigation and bad feeling among farmers over water rights and the use of water than in all other affairs combined.”
MADISON RIVER.
The Madison river rises in the Yellowstone National park southeast of the head waters of the West Gallatin, a great part of the water com¬ ing from the hot springs and geysers of Firehole river and other streams in the park. It flows in a general westerly and northwesterly direc¬ tion for about 40 miles through canyons, then turns toward the north, and soon after enters Madison valley, a long narrow opening bounded at both euds by canyons through which the river flows. The catchment area of this stream above Madison valley is in most respects similar to that of the West Gallatin, with the possible exception that the slopes may be a trifle less steep and the water delivered with a little less rapidity to the stream.
Below Madison valley the river continues in the lower canyon for over 10 miles before the walls again fall back. The gauging station of the Geological Survey is in this canyon at a point a short distance below the mouth of Hot Spring creek. The measurements obtained at this place rejiresent therefore the amount of water flowing out of Madison valley, a comj)aratively small quantity being added during the passage of the river through the canyon.
Madison valley lies at a general altitude of from 4,800 to 5,000 feet. It is over 30 miles in length from north to south, and ux) wards of 8 miles in width at about its center. There is no railroad in the valley, the only means of transiiortation being by wagon road across the mountains. In spite of this fact, however, agriculture has developed to a comparatively large extent owing to the ready market for suiiiilies at mining towns in that jiart of the state.
NEWELI,.]
DISCHARGE OF MADISON RIVER.
47
The water used for irrigation iu Madison valley is taken almost exclu¬ sively from the creeks which come from the mountains on both sides. These on the east rise to heights of over 10,000 feet, and the streams draining their slopes carry a considerable amount of water throughout the year. The main river, traversing the valley from south to north, is little used on account of the fact that small ditches can be built from ^ the side streams to cover the arable lands at far less expense and by the exercise of less skill than from the river.
As in the case of theother valleys of Montana, the droughts of 1S89 and 1890 impressed upon the farmers the fact that irrigation works must be so planned and constructed that they will receive an ample supply under unusual circumstances. In these years far more water than usual was required, and in 1890 much of the laud had to be irrigated in order to plow it, or to enable the crops to start. In ordinary sea¬ sons no irrigation is necessary in this valley for the first croi) of lucern, and it is customary to give only one watering to small grain. In these latter years of drought there was no decided loss of crops, but the yield was not as large as usual owing to the scarcity of water at crit¬ ical times.
This valley is in the east end of Madison county, which extends from the summits of Madison range westerly to Jeflerson river. The county thus includes several localities besides Madison valley in which irrigation is practiced. According to the census the total number of irrigators in the county was 345 and the acreage of crop irrigated 36,819, giving an average of 107 acres per farm. It is evident from the average size of the crop areas that the methods of applying water must be comparatively crude and that it is used with little care and personal attention. The irrigating ditches are small and are owned usually by a few farmers, there being but one or two systems of notable size.
• It is probable that the Madison river can be diverted by means of large canals, one on each side of the valley, and by this means bring under ii-rigation all of the lowland and even a portion of the benches, and that by a well planned system the higher benches can be cultivated by means of the water from the side streams. It will be necessary, however, to make careful surveys before the feasibility of such projects can be determined. In the north end of the valley near Meadow creek is a large area of arable land, the water supply for which is at iiresent insufficient. This can undoubtedly be irrigated, however, in part at least by the construction of storage reservoirs on Meadow creek, as, for example, at North Meadow creek lake, where, it is stated, the watei can readily be held. At present the farmers in this locality state that owing to scarcity of water they can not raise sufficient hay to carry the stock through the winter, and that there are heavy losses in consequence.
The gauging station of the Geological Survey, as noted in the second annual report, is below the mouth of Hot Spring creek, 4 miles from
48
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
the town of Eed Bluff, at Hayward bridge.' The results of the compu¬ tations of discharge are shown in Fig. o4, which gives the daily dis¬ charge for 1891 and for the first half of 1892. This diagram should be compared with that on PI. lxi, in the Twelfth Annual lleport,'^ where is given diagrammatically the quantity of water in the river in 1890 and during the early months of 1891. Reference should also be made to the table of mean monthly and annual discharge on page 92 of the present report.
Fig. 54. — Diagram of daily discharge of Madhson river near Red Bluff, Mont., 1891 and 1892.
About 6 miles below the gauging station the Madison river crosses the county line and enters Gallatin county, and a short distance beyond this point the valley widens, opening out into the western prolongation of Gallatin valley. Comparatively little irrigation is carried on along the river on account of the difficulty and expense of diverting water. From the topography of the country, however, it would appear that large canals can be built to carry water upon the bench lands upon each side. The practicability of such schemes can only be determined by survey. The amount of water available, as shown by the stream measurements, is large, the average for three years being over 1,909 second-feet. This, at a water duty of 100 acres to the second-foot, would irrigate 190,000 acres, an amount far greater than can probably be covered by canals. Thus the water supply along the Madison river if properly utilized will probably be far in excess of the demands made uj)on it.
1 See IJ. S. Geol. Survey, Eleventh Ann. Kept., 1889-90, pt. 2, p. 40. “ U. S. Geol. Survey, Twelfth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, Irrigation, p. 230.
NEWELL.]
HEADWATERS OF JEFFERSON RIVER.
49
The bench land on the west side of the Madison river contains a body of arable land probably as good as any in the state. This land extends from Three Forks up the Madison river for 10 or 12 miles and west to Willow creek, a distance of nearly 8 miles. Little, if any, of this land is under cultivation, on account of the exj)ense of constructing a canal. One-half of the land to be benefited is reported to belong to the North¬ ern Pacific railroad, which owns alternate sections. At present there are only a few hay ranches along the stream, the owners being engaged in stock-raising. Wherever the ground is sufficiently moist a little hay is cut without irrigation, but away from the flood plains of the rivers nothing can be raised at present. The soil, however, is very rich, and although it now produces merely a stunted growth of bunchgrass, by irrigation up wards of 40 bushels or wheat and GO of oats per acre can be raised.
JEFFERSON RIVER.
The drainage basin of the Jefferson lies west of that of the Madison and includes the area surrounded on the south and west by the great bend or loop in the continental divide or watershed. The drainage area of this stream is over four times as great as that of the Madison, but, in spite of this fact, the mean annual discharge of the stream is probably not as great, owing to the difference in character of topogra¬ phy and the lower elevation. The main stream is formed by the union of Bighole river, coming in from the west, and the Beaverhead from the south . From this point the river flows in a general northeasterly course for a distance of 60 miles to its junction with the Madison and Gallatin, forming the Missouri river.
Bedrock creek, the head waters of Beaverhead river, rises in the mountains south of Madison valley and flows west, x)arallel to the con¬ tinental divide, through, a broad open valley, in which are numerous small lakes and marshes, furnishing excellent pasturage. This is known as Centennial valley. It is about 40 miles long and from 2 to 3 miles in width, and lies at an elevation of about 6,000 feet. Bedrock creek, after flowing beyond the line between Madison and Beaverhead counties, turns toward the north and flows through an open though broken country, suitable princiiially for grazing. The bed of the stream frequently becomes nearly dry at various points in Beaverhead county during the latter part of summer, and it will be necessary to store some of the water in order to increase the acreage of irrigated crops.
A gauging station was established on April 9, 1890, at Bedrock, a short distance above the mouth of Horse Prairie creek, and measure¬ ments were continued until October. The average discharge for the year is estimated to have been 148 second-feet. The daily discharge of Bedrock creek for the time during which observations were made is shown in the twelfth annual report, part 2, PI. lx, in connection with the diagram for the West Gallatin river. The drainage area is 1,330 13 GEOL., PT. Ill - 4
50
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
square miles, and this amount of water would cover this area to a depth of inches. The mean annual rim-olf from this catchment area was a little over 0.1 of a second-foot per square mile. A measurement was made of Eedrock creek at Alderdice, about 20 miles above Kedrock, the discharge on September G, 1890, being 10 second-feet.
Below Eedrock station several important tributaries enter the stream, the principal of those from the west being Horse Prairie, Grasshopper, and Eattlesnake creeks, and from the east Blacktail Deer creek. The latter stream was measured on September 4, 1889, at Poindexter, the discharge being only 10 second-feet from a drainage area of 300 square miles. This amount may be considered as the waste or seepage water from the ditches above.
The Beaverhead river, formed by the union of the creeks named above, flows toward the northeast through an open country having an elevation of from 4,800 to 5,400 feet, the valley lands extending on each side up tributary streams. The water supply, especially in summer, is very scanty on account of the fact that the head waters of these streams are among comparatively low, broad mountains, from which the rain and snow water is not discharged with rapidity. In the higher valleys the various forage plants, with the exception of alfalfa, are raised, and also wheat, oats, and barley, the climate being in general too cold for corn and many of the common fruits.
In consequence of the scanty supply of water and the lack of eflicient regulations governing the distribution of it, controversies are con¬ stantly arising concerning the use of the water, and these lead to almost endless litigation. It is imj)ossible for the agricultural resources to be developed until the water supply is increased by storage and until a thorough system of water control is inaugurated, so that the irrigator may be reasonably sure of receiving a fair proportion of water each year.
In many of the upper valleys, as, for example, on Grasshopper creek, the settlers for nearly thirty years have raised nothing but hay along creek bottoms. They have not produced even the common garden veg¬ etables, but many of them are convinced that if the lands were thor¬ oughly cultivated and the water not allowed to run to waste, but stored and held for use during the summer, the production per acre could be increased threefold, and the water could be made to cover many times as much land as it does at present. It is stated that under i^resent methods the full limit of farming has been reached, and that when a ranch is taken higher up on the river and irrigated some person further down the stream must stop farming for lack of water. One farmer states that when he bought his land he had an abundant supply, but as other persons brought under cultivation land higher and higher up on the river and its tributaries, he, with others, began to lose the usual supply, and as a result all parties are engaged in lawsuits.
Xear Dillon a deep well has been drilled to a depth of 450 feet, at a
NEWELL.]
TRIBUTARIES OF JEFFERSON RIVER.
51
cost of about $5,000, in the hopes of obtaining artesian water. There is especial need here for water for the farms already under cultivation, not to mention the thousands of acres that might be cultivated if water could be had. The farmers, as a rule, see the imperfection of the pres¬ ent methods of irrigation, but are unable to unite upon any practicable plan to remedy matters. The first settlers claim most, if not all, of the water during dry seasons, and the later comers do not see why they are not entitled to as much water as the others.
The Bighole, or, as it was formerly known. Wisdom river, rises in the mountain ranges northwest of the headwaters of Beaverhead river. It flows northerly through broad, open valleys, then turns to the east and southeast, describing roughly a half circle in a general way parallel to that formed by the continental divide. It is probable that this river carries a larger amount of water than does the Beaverhead, but, unfor¬ tunately, few measurements have been made. On September 8, 1889, the Bighole, as measured at Melrose, was discharging only 60 second- feet from a drainage area of 2,335 square miles. At about the same time, viz, September 9, the Beaverhead, at Dillon, where the drainage area is approximately 4,000 square miles, was discharging 75 second- feet.
When the upper valleys along this stream were first settled it Avas found that good hay grew in abundance along the river and on the small creek bottoms that were overflowed in spring and early summer. These lands were rapidly taken up, and for many years the inhabitants were successful in raising sufficient hay for their cattle without irriga¬ tion. In 1889, however, there was almost complete failure of crops on such land, but those jAersons who had taken water out upon the bench or high lands had a fairly good crojA.
A short distance above the junction of the Beaverhead and Bighole rivers Euby creek enters from the southeast, bringing Avater from the Jefferson range, Euby range, and other mountains, the drainage basin of this river being included Avithin Madison county. This stream is reiiorted to flow continuously throughout the year, and the ' ditches depending upon it usually receive an amount of water sufficient for ordinary needs. In the case of many of the tributaries, however, the supply is less abundant, some of them becoming dry during sfiimmer. A measurement of Euby creek Avas made at Laurin on September 4, 1889, and the discharge was found to be 90 second-feet from a drain¬ age area of approximately 710 square miles.
There is complaint that the ditches are too small and that the loss by evaporation and seepage is enormous } also, that the construction has been so poor that the annual expense of maintenance is a serious mat¬ ter to the irrigator. There is a great need not only here, but elsewhere in the basin, of storage reservoirs near the head of the river, and of more thorough systems of emiiloying the Avater already available. It is stated that there is great wastage from lack of deflnite*rules regarding
62
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
the use of the water, some persons allowing it to run where it does no good, or neglecting’ to employ it properly in spring and fall. The ground also is not always properly prepared, and the losses through ignorance and carelessness are often greater than those through scarcity of supply.
Along the lower part of the Beaverhead many farms depend upon seepage and overflow, the only crop raised being hay. The cultivated lands lie higher and must be irrigated by means of ditches before any¬ thing can be produced, the only exception being in the case of certain soils which, in an unusually rainy season, retain sufficient moisture to siqiport an inferior growth. In 1890, as well as in 1889, the Beaver¬ head was dry in certain places and it is probable that this condition of things will occur again and again, since more land is being brought under cultivation on the tributaries each year. The only apparent relief is from storage reservoirs. In a few instances alkali is reported to have developed on some of the lower lands to an extent sufficient to kill grass and other plants, resulting in partial or complete abandon¬ ment of these spots.
Below the junction of the Beaverhead and Bighole rivers the Jeffer¬ son receives a number of tributaries, the principal of these from the north being Pipestone, Whitetail Deer, and INorth Boulder creeks, these being in Jefferson county, and from the south Coal, Bell, South Boul¬ der, and Willow creeks, these coming from the Jefferson range.
On North Boulder creek, as on many of the other streams, there is great scarcity of water, and as the settlers bring more and more land under cultivation the demand steadily increases. In this part of the state examples are furnished of the changes in industry, the first set¬ tlers being attracted by mining, and then to some extent taking up stock-raising. After awhile the stock ranges become overstocked, and during the dry seasons the grass has been almost destroyed. As a'con- sequence the settlers have turned their attention more and more to agriculture, and the strife for water has become severe. It is asserted that there is not sufficient water along North Boulder creek for one acre out of ten of the tillable lands unless some is saved by storage. In the dry seasons of 1889 and 1890 this creek and the Little Boulder were very low, and even dry in places, and the floods, which generally wet the bottom lands in April and May, were too small to be of much benefit.
The drainage basin of Jefferson river includes all of Beaverhead county, the southern part of Silverbow county, the western part of Madison and the south end of Jefferson county. According to the cen¬ sus there were in Beaverhead county 294 irrigators and a total crop area of 42,600 acres irrigated, the average size of farm being 145 acres. In Silverbow county there were 75 irrigators and 5,968 acres irrigated, most of this undoubtedly being along the Bighole river or its tribu-
NEWELL.] WATER SUPPLY OF MISSOURI VALLEY. 53
taries. In Jefifersoii and Madison counties the acreage irrigated, as previously stated, lies partly in other basins.
MISSOURI VALLEY.
This name is commonly applied to the long, narrow valley lying for the most part on the east side of the Missouri river southeast of Helena. The river below Three Forks continues northerly for about 20 miles, principally in a gorge or canyon. At Toston the valley begins to widen, the river keeping its course near the hills on the western side, leaving broad bench and low lands on the east. The valley terminates near Canyon Ferry, a point 18 miles from Helena in a direction a little north of east. A large number of streams rising in the Belt mountains enter this valley from the east, furnishing a well distributed though small water supply.
Irrigation in the Missouri valley is carried on mainly by means of water from the tributaries, the water of the main river being used to a very small extent, if at all. This is due to the fact that ditches can be diverted from the side streams with far greater ease than from the river on account of their decided fall and the elevation of their beds relative to the lands to be irrigated. The water in these streams de¬ creases rapidly in July and many of them become dry later in the sea¬ son. In 1889 it is reported that not to exceed one-fourth of a crop was raised in the valley, and in many instances there was an entire failure owing to scarcity of water. In the following year the condition of af¬ fairs was a little better, but some farmers failed to obtain fair returns.
The quantity of water in the streams varies greatly with the charac¬ ter of the weather during the winter season. If the fall is dry and there is a large amount of snow during winter a large part of this sat¬ urates the ground, but, on the other hand, if the ground is frozen before snow comes it often melts and runs away without being of benefit. The farmers have become accustomed to estimating the probable amount of water available during the succeeding season and as far as possible regulate their crops in accordance with the probabilities.
The great need of this valley is of a large canal taking water from the Missouri river and bringing it out at an elevation sufficient to cover the thousands of acres of excellent land. Whether this is practicable can be determined only by thorough examination of the route of such a canal.^ If this could be done then the water of the side streams could be used upon bench lands above the reach of the canal. As regards water supply there can be no question, for the amount in the river, as shown by measurements, is ample for all demands of this kind.
The amount of water in the Missouri river at the head of the valley is practically the same as that at the junction of the Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson, since only a few small streams enter between these two places. The measurements of flowing water made in this part of the
’ Eleventh Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, Irrigation, p. 114.
54
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
river have been previously mentioned on p. 39. The details of those made at Toston from Axjril 8 to July 2G, 1890, are given on page 42 of the second annual report.^ According to these measurements the dis¬ charge at that time varied from 3,697 second-feet to 14,440. The meas¬ urements made by T. P. Eoberts in 1872 are mentioned on p. 236 of the third annual report,^ the result obtained by him in the latter part of July being 8,538 second-feet. On July 28, 1890, the discharge, as measured by the Missouri Eiver Commission, was 2,863 second-feet, and on August 6, 1890, 2,640 second-feet.
Besides the comx)utations of discharge made for localities above the valley, others, as given on p. 39, were made for stations at the lower end of the valley, where the river again enters the canyons, viz, at Canyon Ferry, Stubbs Ferry, and localities in that vicinity. A com¬ parison of the results obtained at these places, together with those from the gauging station at Craig, shows that at the time of greatest drought the river rarely falls below 2,000 second-feet, so that at all times there will be an ample supply in the river for use upon the irri¬ gable lands. As previously stated, a permanent station has been established at Townsend by the Missouri Eiver Commission, where records of the fluctuations of the height of the stream are being kept.
The quantity of water delivered by the streams coming from the Big Belt mountains is not known, but there is unquestionably an amount sufiiciently large to fill during the sirring numerous reservoirs among the foothills. By saving the surplus water in this way a larger acreage could be brought under cultivation in the Missouri valley, and it is pos¬ sible that the greater part of the land could in time be irrigated should a large canal from the Missouri river prove impracticable. On the other hand, even with a canal of this character there would still remain elevated tracts on the bench lands to be supplied with water from storage.
The eastern side of Missouri valley is in the western end of Meagher county, the river forming the county line, while the land on the oppo¬ site bank of the stream is in Jefferson county. In this latter locality most of the farmers depend for irrigation mainly upon water from the Missouri river, taking it out during flood time. When the stream falls they can no longer bring the water out upon their ground and in sum¬ mer the crops often are very scanty on account of the lack of mois¬ ture. The streams from the Jefferson range are less in number and carry a smaller amount of water than is the case of those from the Belt mountains in the east.
PRICKLY PEAR VALLEY.
Prickly Pear valley is northwest of Missouri valley, lying on the west side of the Missouri river and beginning nearly opposite the lower end of this latter valley. The Jefferson mountains are on the south and
*IJ. S. Geol. Survey, Eleventh Ann. Kept., pt. ii, irrigation, p. 42. * Twelfth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, Irrigation, p. 236.
NEWELL.]
IRRIGATION NEAR HELENA.
55
the continental divide with its spurs on the west and north. The city of Helena, the capital of Montana, is on the southwestern edge of the open land. The elevation of the valley is from 3,800 to 4,200 feet, the railroad at the city of Helena being 3,932 feet above sea level. The valley is nearly 12 miles wide and 20 miles long, but, although com¬ paratively thickly settled, the water supply is deficient. Wherever water can be obtained, however, the land is thoroughly cultivated.
In the Prickly Pear valley there are thousands of acres of arable land which by irrigation would produce heavy crops. CJ nfortuuately the Missouri river is at an elevation too low to be brought out ui)on any of this land, for, as previously stated, the elevation of low water at Toston is 3,879 feet and at Craig, 3,629. The only way of increasing the water supply, therefore, is by storing the spring floods. Occasion¬ ally there have been seasons in which there was sufficient rainfall to produce a good crop anywhere in the valley, but from 1888 to 1890 the precipitation has either been too small, ^or has come at times when it was of little benefit to agriculture, and it is evident that no dependence can be placed upon the success of farming without irrigation.
The facilities for storing water are reported to be excellent, as there are'many localities where water, in small quantities at least, could be held for use during the dry season. The matter has been frequently dis¬ cussed by the irrigators, but comparatively little work has been done toward making these resources available. Attempts have been made to obtain water by deep wells, one being drilled at Helena to a depth of 1,000 feet. Water was found at ICO feet, but it did not rise to the surface. Another well has been drilled to a depth of 521 feet, and this and other shallower wells are pumped by windmills, each furnishing water for about an acre of ground.
In some ijortions of the valley are a few swamps and hay lands kept moist by springs or seepage, but in other parts there has been a suc¬ cession of losses of crops owing to deficiency of water. In the southern part of the valley the irrigators depend ui)on water from Prickley Pear creek, which flows north from the Jefferson range. A few own private ditches, while others have joined in forming companies in order to build canals and ditches. There has been more or less contention over the division of water. In a few instances it is stated that prior locators whose rights have been confirmed by decisions of court find it more profitable to sell the water to more unfortunate irrigators than to attempt to use it themselves.
DEARBORN AND SUN RIVERS.
The Dearborn and Sun rivers rise in the main range of the Eocky mountains and flow easterly to the Missouri, the Dearborn entering at a iioint about 50 miles north of Helena and the Sun river at an equal distance further down the river. A large number of creeks flow into the stream between these points, but they are of comparatively little
66
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
importance in irrigation. On the Dearborn river are several large irri¬ gating canals, the one on the north fork being i)erha])s the most exten¬ sive ill the state. There is no continuous record of the amount of water in this stream, the only measurements known being those made at Dearborn on August 9, 1889, the discharge being 47 second-feet, and on April 15, 1890, 37 second-feet. The drainage area at this point is about 350 square miles.
In this vicinity are large areas of table or bench land along the Mis¬ souri river and extending back to the mountains. The soil on these lands would be very productive if an ample supply of water could be secured. The Missouri river, however, is, as in the case of Prickly Pear valley, at too low an elevation to furnish the needed supply. In times of drought the small streams become dry often at points above the heads of the farmers’ ditches. Even the comparatively large streams, as the Dearborn and Sun, contract to such an extent that it becomes a matter of conjecture as to wjiere the water for the large canals is to come from.
Along the beds of the small dry creeks a number of storage reser¬ voirs have been built by ranchmen, who find that in this way they can save enough water to bring under irrigation jiatches of forage crop of considerable size. This method of saving water is being gradually ex¬ tended, although the capital invested in such works is small on account of the limited means of the owners. Water is always plentiful in the spring, and if advantage is taken of this fact at the proper time these small ponds can be filled.
The Sun river has been described with considerable detail in the second annual report, ’ where is given a map of the basin, showing the reservoirs and canal lines surveyed by H. M. Wilson. The details of the work are given on page 121 of this volume. The discharge of the Sun river is shown graphically on Plate lxiii of the third annual re¬ port, ^ and the maximum, minimum, and mean discharges by months are given in the table on page 347 of the same volume. By reference to this table it will be seen that the discharge for 1890 ranged from 160 second-feet up to 4,085 second- feet. The average for the year was 715 second-feet, this amount of water coming from a drainage area of about 1,175 square miles. The possible utilization of this water out upon the great plains on both sides of the Sun river, both in Lewis and Clarke and Choteau counties, and in Cascade county, above Great Falls, has been discussed by Mr. Wilson in other reports.
The irrigators depending for water upon the smaller streams in this part of the country state that the water supply is barely sufficient for present demands, and that there are large tracts of land on every side now valueless for lack of water. Much of this can be irrigated only by storing the spring floods, but, unfortunately, the farmers do not have
’ Eleventh Ann. Kept. TT. S. Geol. Survey, pt. ll, Irrigation, pagee 120 to 133. * Twelfth Ann. Kept. IT. S. Geol. Survey, pt. ii, Irrigation, p. 234.
NEWELL.]
DISCHARGE OF MISSOURI RIVER.
57
sufficient capital to build tbe small reservoirs. The demand for water is increasing with great rapidity since the ranges upon which the cat¬ tle have been accustomed to feed are being fenced and the stockmen are compelled to raise more and more feed for their cattle.
The drainage basin of the Dearborn river, the south part of that of the Sun river, and the Prickly Pear valley are principally in Lewis and Clarke county, in which area, according to the last census, there were 231 irrigators, and a total of 15,441 acres irrigated from which crops were obtained. The average size of the area irrigated by each person was thus 67 acres, an amount considerably less than the average for the state, but still large when compared with the carefully cultivated areas of Utah and of adjoining states.
CHESTNUT VALLEY AND SMITH RIVER.
’ Chestnut valley is the term applied to the open land along the Mis¬ souri river above Great Falls and north of the Big Belt mountains. Smith river, which drains the country between the Big and Little Belt mountains, enters the Missouri river near the lower end of this valley. A large proportion of the lower land of this area can be irrigated by means of a canal from the Missouri. One canal has already been built, but owing to improper plan or construction a sufficient supply of water could not be turned into it during the drought of 1889 and succeeding years.
The quantity of water in the river available for irrigation is very large, as shown by measurements made at various points referred to on the preceding pages. The daily discharge at Craig, a point north of Helena and above the mouth of the Dearborn river, is shown in Fig. 55. The discharge in 1891, as indicated by the light line, was con¬ siderably less than in 1892. This figure should be compared with PI. LXii of the Twelfth Annual Eeport,^ which also gives diagrammatically the discharge during the early part of 1891, together with the quanti¬ ties for 1890 and for the latter part of 1889. The increased discharge of 1892 over that for 1890 and 1891 is especially noticeable.
There is a large amount of bottom land along the Missouri river usu¬ ally overflowed each year in the month of June and producing heavy crops of wild hay. Occasionally, however, in years of drought there is no overflow and little hay can be cut. The construction of canals built in such manner as to insure a permanent supply of water for the valley must necessarily involve large expenditures, but the certainty of securing water offers inducements toward investment of this char¬ acter. In this part of the state there have been a number of large canals built at heavy expense, but which have been to a greater or less degree failures on account of errors of judgment as to the quantity of water available or through poor engineering in locating the line of canal.
‘ U. S. Geol. Survey, Twelfth Ann. Kept., pt. ii, Irrigation, p. 232.
58
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION.
It is stated that the charge for water from the large canal in Chest¬ nut valley is $2 per miner’s inch a season, and that cue-half an inch to the acre is sufficient, but in dry seasons the farmers claim that they can not succeed in raising good crops with this amount of water. Oc¬ casionally fair crops can be raised without irrigation, but with a thor¬ ough system every acre of this beautiful valley could be made to pro¬ duce large crops every year.
The headwaters of Smith river are in Meagher county, while the lower part, near Chestnut valley, is in Cascade county. As in the case of nearly all streams which flow from one county to another, there is
Fig. 55. — Diagram of daily discharge of Missouri river at Craig, Montana, for 1891 and 1892.
more or less friction among the irrigators of each locality regarding the distribution of the water during the summer. In the upper val¬ leys, where the agricultural areas are small, the water supply is com¬ paratively abundant and is used freely and even wastefuUy on hay lands. Further do wn the amount of water available steadily diminishes until the point is finally reached where there is not sufficient for the land usually cultivated.
On the headwaters of the south fork of Smith river from 15 to 20 miles southerly from White Sulphur springs a number of reservoirs have been examined by the Geological Survey and rejiorted for segre¬ gation as described on pages 137 et seq., of the third annual report. At White Sulphur springs the valley has an elevation of about 5,000 feet, and the Smith river is usually considered as a small sized creek. All of the ditches in this vicinity are owned by individuals who take as much water from the streams as they need. Occasionally, however,
NEWELL.]
59
RIVERS OF EASTERN MONTANA.
when there is an nnusnal drought there is even at this point considera¬ ble litigation concerning the distribution of this water. Probably more land could be brought under cultivation if storage reservoirs were constructed in the localities favorable for such work.
In the eastern end of Cascade county near the lower part of Smith river valley the country is in general broken, and the only part suit¬ able for cultivation is that along small, narrow bottoms in the coulees which lead down from the mountains to some water course. In some of these coulees, or draws as they are locally called, there are small streams of water from springs which flow even during the dry season. This water is used by each settler in irrigating a few acres of grain or a garden, but there are few ditches of notable size. There has been little, if any, effort made to provide water storage.
East of Smith river are a number of streams deriving their water from the northern end of the Little Belt mountains or from the High- wood mountains which occupy an almost isolated position to the north of these. A few ditches have been taken out of Little Belt creek. Otter creek and Big Belt creek, but these were of comparatively little use during times of severe drought. In fact, as stated by one of the irri¬ gators, when there is sufficient water to fill the ditches no irrigation is needed and they are practically useless. On the other hand, when the drought is unusually severe the only possible means of irrigation would be by water held in reservoirs near the Highwood mountains.
TETON AND MARIAS RIVERS.
The Teton and Marias rivers rise in the Eocky mountains in the northwestern corner of the Missouri basin and flow in an easterly direc¬ tion through a region of elevated plains and prairies, finally joining the Missouri river. The general altitude of this country is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet, towards the mountains the plains rising by gentle terraces to elevations of about 5,000 feet. This, as shown on PI. cviii, is abroad grazing country, cattle finding an ample supply of grass, esxiecially during years of ordinary rainfall. There are very few cultivated farms, and these are found